THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  ILLINOIS 
LIBRARY 


14-4 

~B  I  5"-m 


JD*U« 


Due 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING 
for  BEGINNERS 

Giving  the  Fundamental  Technic  of 
Modern  Practice 

By 

CHARLES  H.  BAILEY 

Director  of  Manual  Arts 
Iowa  State  Teachers'  College 


THE  MANUAL  ARTS  PRESS 
PEORIA,  ILLINOIS 


Copyright 
Charles  H.  Bailey 
1920 


1\Qol?H 


IVt 

^>\5irr> 


U 

I 


PREFACE 


THE  fundamental  principles  involved  in  the  making  of  working 
drawings  are  few  and  not  difficult  to  comprehend.  If  properly 
presented,  they  may  be  readily  and  quickly  mastered  by  the  learner, 
and,  once  mastered,  furnish  the  basis  upon  which  must  be  developed  the 
ability  to  deal  with  special  problems  in  drafting  as  they  occur  in  the  vari¬ 
ous  applications  of  mechanical  drawing  in  industrial  and  mechanical 
work.  But  these  fundamental  principles  must  be  mastered;  otherwise, 
the  student  will  have  difficulty  later  with  the  specialized  work. 

It  is  not  only  important  to  master  principles  but  also  to  have  an  in¬ 
telligent  understanding  of  and  to  form  correct  habits  in  the  best  pro¬ 
cedure  and  practice.  A  thoro  understanding  of  principles  is  necessary 
to  insure  the  correctness  of  a  drawing,  while  correct  procedure  is  essen¬ 
tial  to  the  working  out  of  a  drawing  effectively  and  economically. 

It  is  the  aim  or  this  little  book  to  present  the  fundamental  principles 
of  working  drawings  thru  a  series  of  progressive  problems,  and  to  pre¬ 
sent  the  fundamentals  of  procedure  and  practice  by  means  of  explana¬ 
tions,  illustrative  problems,  and  drawings  given  in  connection  with  the 
problems.  It  is  not  intended  to  be  a  complete  textbook  of  mechanical 
drawing  but  it  gives  the  important  things  which  the  learner  must  master 
and  upon  which  a  more  extensive  study  and  training  must  be  based. 

The  book  is  not  intended  to  be  used  without  a  teacher.  A  person 
might  get  much  from  the  book  by  working  alone,  but  it  is  intended  to  be 
used  in  classes  where  the  teacher  gives  full  and  careful  instruction,  both 
class  and  individual.  It  is  to  be  used  as  an  aid  to  the  pupil  and  teacher 
rather  than  as  a  substitute  for  the  teacher.  To  secure  the  best  results, 
each  pupil  should  have  a  book  for  constant  reference. 

The  book  is  intended  for  use  by  beginners  and  should  be  equally  val¬ 
uable  to  those  who  can  take  only  a  brief  course  and  to  those  who  expect 
to  pursue  more  advanced  study.  It  is  not  planned  to  cover  any  definite 
period  of  time.  A  class  may  be  taken  thru  the  course  rather  quickly, 
working  only  a  limited  number  of  problems  in  each  section,  thus  getting 
all  the  principles,  tho  less  thoroly;  or  a  larger  number  of  drawings  may 
be  made.  The  teacher  may  add  others  not  given  in  the  book,  thus  mak¬ 
ing  a  more  complete  course  and  giving  the  student  greater  power  and 
dexterity. 

The  book  does  not  lay  claim  to  originality.  Material  has  been 
gleaned  from  many  sources.  It  is  merely  a  re-statement  of  commonly 

O 


4*71190 


4 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


recognized  principles  and  practice  but  in  a  somewhat  different  form. 
Instead  of  being  divided  into  chapters  presenting  certain  phases  of  the 
subject,  the  book  (is  arranged  in  sections  dealing  with  certain  types  of 
problems  and  the  information  necessary  to  the  solution  of  the  problems 
given  in  connection  with  them.  This  seems  to  be  the  most  direct  and 
natural  arrangement  as  it  corresponds  with  the  process  of  learning. 

The  author  believes  that  the  best  way  to  learn  to  make  working  draw¬ 
ings  is  to  make  working  drawings.  Therefore,  complete  problems  are 
used  right  from  the  start.  Each  drawing  is  entirely  completed  before 
passing  to  the  next.  Thus  the  pupil  has  a  complete  experience  with 
each  problem  and  the  work  has  more  meaning  when  presented  in  this 
way.  No  practice  work  is  required  and  no  purely  copy  work  is  per¬ 
mitted  even  when  it  involves  a  change  of  scale.  The  author’s  experi¬ 
ence  thru  many  years  of  teaching  mechanical  drawing  to  classes  from 
the  fifth  grade  to  those  in  college  convinces  him  that  this  is  the  best  plan 
to  follow. 

The  author  wishes  to  make  due  acknowledgment  to  the  various  books 
and  writings  of  others  that  have  been  a  source  >of  information  and  in¬ 
spiration  in  making  up  this  book,  and  to  express  his  appreciation  of  the 
helpful  suggestions  that  have  been  given  by  those  persons  to  whom  pre¬ 
liminary  plans  have  been  submitted. 


CONTENTS 

Page 

Preface .  3 

Suggestions  to  the  Teacher .  7 

Instruments  and  Materials .  9 

Section  1 : 

Laying  Out  Sheet  for  Practice  Lettering;  Also  for  Regular  Draw¬ 
ing.  Preliminary  Explanations . 11 

Section  2: 

Working  Drawings  of  Objects  Bounded  by  Plane  Surfaces  at 
Right  Angles  to  Each  Other.  No  Invisible  Outlines.  .  .  . 21 

Section  3: 

Working  Drawings  of  Objects  Generally  Rectangular  in  Form 
Having  Some  Invisible  Outlines.  Drawings,  Full  Size . 37 

Section  4 : 

Working  Drawings  of  Objects  Generally  Rectangular  in  Shape 
Similar  to  Those  in  Preceding  Sections,  but  Requiring  to  Be 
Drawn  to  Reduced  Scale . 43 

Section  5: 

Working  Drawings  of  Objects  Having  Inclined  Surfaces.  That 
Is,  Surfaces  Other  Than  at  Right  Angles  to  Each  Other.  Draw¬ 
ings,  Full  Size  or  Reduced . 47 

Section  6: 

Working  Drawings  of  Straight  Line  Objects  of  Greater  Complex¬ 
ity.  Laying  Out  by  Means  of  Center  Lines . 56 

Section  7: 

Working  Drawings  of  Objects,  Some  Outlines  of  Which  Are  Circles 
or  Arcs  of  Circles . 62 

Section  8: 

Tracing  and  Blueprinting.  Lettering,  Titles,  Etc . 68 


CONTENTS— Continued 


Section  9:  Page 

Working  Drawings  of  More  Complex  Objects  Having  Curved  Out¬ 
lines.  Projecting  Points  from  Top  View  to  End  View,  or  from 

End  View  to  Top  View . 72 

*  * 

Section  10: 

Working  Drawings  of  One-Piece  Objects  Showing  Full-Section  or 
Half-Section  Views . 77 

Section  11: 

Working  Drawings  of  Objects  Consisting  of  More  Than  One  Piece, 
Showing  Full-Section  or  Half-Section  Views . 81 

Section  12: 

Working  Drawings  of  Miscellaneous  Objects  Representing  Partial 
Sections,  Revolved  Sections  and  Breaks . 84 


Section  13... 
Index  . . 


88 

91 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  THE  TEACHER 


HEN  using  this  book,  it  is  suggested  that  teachers  assign  the  ex¬ 


planatory  matter  for  study  outside  of  class  periods  just  as 


would  be  done  with  any  textbook.  The  teacher  should  then  go  over  the 
same  carefully  with  the  class,  making  clear  the  points  brought  out  in  the 
book  and  giving  such  other  instruction  as  may  seem  desirable.  While 
doing  the  work,  the  pupil  should  have  the  book  before  him  and  make 
constant  reference  to  it. 

Be  sure  that  the  students  understand  and  actually  practice  the  cor¬ 
rect  methods  of  procedure.  See  that  they  understand  the  different 
stages  and  steps  in  making  a  drawing  as  given  here  and  that  they  ob¬ 
serve  them  strictly  when  doing  the  work.  This  may  perhaps  seem 
rather  formal  at  first,  but,  if  insisted  upon,  correct  habits  will  quickly  be 
formed  and  difficulties  of  manipulation  quickly  overcome. 

It  will  be  well  to  make  free  use  of  class  discussions,  recitations  and  ex¬ 
aminations  covering  principles  and  practice  as  the  work  proceeds. 

Notice  that  the  plan  of  instruction  involves  the  making  of  complete 
drawings  from  the  beginning.  This  plan  makes  it  necessary  to  proceed 
rather  slovly  at  first  as  there  are  quite  a  number  of  things  to  be  learned 
in  order  to  make  the  first  drawing.  This  can  be  done,  however,  without 
making  the  work  tiresome,  and,  by  so  doing,  the  pupil  obtains  a  clearer 
idea  of  the  purpose  of  the  work. 

Emphas:  e  first  of  all  a  thoro  understanding  of  principles  and  the 
ability  to  use  drawing  as  a  means  of  expression,  or  as  a  language.  This 
is  the  most  important  thing  for  the  student  to  acquire.  In  the  second 
place,  emphasize  the  use  of  correct  methods  of  manipulation  and  pro¬ 
cedure,  and  in  the  third  place,  emphasize  accuracy  and  neatness  in  the 
finished  drawing.  Accuracy  and  neatness  iare  largely  the  result  of 
practice  and  should  develop  as  the  pupil  has  experience.  Try  to  see 
that  each  drawing  represents  the  pupil’s  best  effort  and  that  each  suc¬ 
ceeding  one  is  better  than  the  one  before. 

No  extended  treatment  of  lettering  is  undertaken  here,  not  because 
lettering  is  unimportant,  but  the  scope  of  the  book  does  not  permit.  It 
will  be  sufficient  in  this  course  for  the  pupil  to  learn  the  vertical  capitals 
as  given  in  the  book.  Assign  practice  work  in  lettering  constantly 
thruout  the  course.  If  the  teacher  wishes  to  go  further  with  the  subject 
of  lettering  write  to  the  publishers  of  this  book  for  helpful  material  on 
the  subject. 


8 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Freehand  sketching,  preliminary  to  the  mechanical  working  out  of  the 
drawings,  is  not  required  in  the  course  as  outlined.  This  is  left  to  the 
discretion  of  the  teacher.  It  may  often  be  desirable  to  ask  the  student 
to  make  a  freehand  sketch  of  a  problem  on  cheap  sketching  paper  before 
attempting  to  draw  it  on  the  regular  drawing  paper,  especially  if  he  seems 
not  to  understand  it  thoroly  or  if  it  is  complicated. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  data  for  the  problems  is  given  in  two  different 
ways,  as  perspective  sketches  dimensioned  or  accompanied  by  notes, 
and  as  incomplete  working  drawings  which  the  student  is  to  complete. 
Each  problem  requires  a  solution  and  is  a  test  of  the  pupil’s  knowledge 
and  his  ability  to  use  drawing.  If  he  understands,  his  solution  will  be 
correct;  if  his  solution  is  not  correct  he  does  not  understand  and  needs 
more  instruction  over  the  points  that  are  not  clear. 

The  teacher  will  find  it  helpful  to  assign  problems  in  drawing  from  ob¬ 
jects  used  as  models.  This  is  especially  desirable  for  the  first  problems 
and  it  would  be  well  if  models  of  some  of  the  objects  used  for  problems 
in  the  book  were  made  and  used  to  make  the  work  more  clear.  An  ex¬ 
tensive  collection  of  good  models  is  very  important.  The  teacher 
should  also  assign  problems  in  addition  to  those  given  in  the  book.  This 
may  be  done  by  using  models,  by  placing  problems  upon  the  blackboard 
or  using  blueprints.  Problems  correlated  with  shop  work  may  be  used. 
Any  set  of  problems  may  be  used  so  long  as  they  fit  into  the  scheme  of 
the  book.  Thus  it  has  a  wide  range  of  adaption. 

Tracing,  inking  upon  the  paper  and  blueprinting  may  be  entirely 
omitted  without  breaking  the  continuity  of  the  course.  Thus  pencil 
work  only  may  be  done  if  desired. 

Give  special  attention  to  the  proper  placing  of  dimensions.  Much  de¬ 
pends  upon  this,  and  too  often  it  is  carelessly  done.  The  manner  in 
which  dimensions  are  placed  upon  the  perspective  sketches  should  not 
be  taken  as  suggestions  for  placing  them  upon  the  working  drawing,  as 
this  is  an  entirely  different  problem.  See  that  pupils  follow  the  sugges¬ 
tions  about  dimensioning  given  in  the  text,  and  give  all  the  additional 
help  possible  in  this  rather  difficult  matter. 

Several  problems  are  given  under  each  section.  These  need  not  all  be 
made  by  each  pupil.  Assign  such  as  seem  best  under  the  circumstances 
so  as  to  give  the  pupil  as  much  experience  and  knowledge  as  is  possible 
in  the  time  available. 

This  little  book,  properly  used,  should  be  a  real  help  to  both  pupil  and 
teacher,  and  better  results  should  be  secured  than  is  often  the  case  where 
no  such  book  is  used. 


INSTRUMENTS  AND  MATERIALS 


Drawing  board  about  16"  x  20".  Good  grade  white  pine  is  best. 
T-square  with  24"  blade. 

45  degree  triangle,  6"  size. 

30-60  degree  triangle,  8"  size. 

Triangular,  architect’s  scale,  12". 

Set  of  instruments. 

If  inking  is  to  be  done,  this  should  contain  at  least  one  compass 
with  pen,  pencil  and  divider  points,  and  one  ruling  pen.  If  only 
pencil  work  is  to  be  done  the  ruling  pen  and  the  pen  point  for  the 
compass  may  be  omitted.  Even  a  common  school  compass,  such  as 
that  made  by  the  Eagle  Pencil  Co.,  may  be  used. 

One  6H  and  one  2H  drawing  pencil. 

One  combination  pencil  and  ink  eraser  and  one  soft,  cleaning  eraser. 

One  dozen  flat-headed  thumb-tacks. 

Small  file,  or  piece  of  sandpaper  glued  to  small  piece  of  wood. 

Drawing  paper,  11"  x  15". 

A  good  grade  of  paper  should  be  used  if  inking  upon  the  paper  is  to 
be  done.  If  the  paper  is  used  for  pencil  work  only,  a  cheaper  grade 
will  be  satisfactory.  Buff  or  cream  colored  paper  is  recommended, 
but  white  paper  may  be  used. 

If  inking  is  to  be  done,  the  following  materials  must  be  added  to  those 
given  above: 

Black,  waterproof  India  drawing  ink. 

Penholder  and  steel  pens  with  medium  point. 

Blotter. 

Tracing  paper,  good  grade  and  reasonably  transparent. 

Blueprint  paper. 


SECTION  1. 


Laying  Out  Sheet  for  Practice  Lettering;  Also  for  Regular 
Drawing.  Preliminary  Explanations. 

1.  Fastening  paper  to  drawing  board.  Place  the  T-square  so 
that  the  inside  edge  of  the  head  rests  snugly  against  the  left-hand  edge 
of  the  drawing  board,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1. 


©- 

d>-~N 

Drawinq  paper. 

MD 

/ — ® 

0  & 

^  > 

0  ® 

© 

©  c 

1  1 
1 

T-square.  / 

Drawma  board  / 

Fig.  1 


Place  paper  in  position  with  its  lower  edge  resting  against  the  upper 
edge  of  the  T-square,  and  so  located  that  the  paper  will  be  a  little  above 
and  to  the  left  of  the  center  of  the  board. 

Hold  paper  and  T-square  in  place  by  resting  the  left  hand  lightly  up¬ 
on  them.1 

Insert  thumb-tack  (marked  1  in  the  illustration,  Fig.  1)  into  the 
upper  left-hand  corner  of  the  paper,  having  the  point  of  the  tack  about 
1/8"  from  the  edges  of  the  paper. 

See  that  the  lower  edge  of  the  paper  exactly  corresponds  with  the 
upper  edge  of  the  T-square  blade;  then  insert  tacks  numbered  2,  3,  4, 
Fig.  1,  in  the  order  of  the  numbers,  placing  the  points  of  tacks  less  than 
1/4"  from  the  edges  of  the  paper.  Press  tack  heads  down  close  to  the 
paper  so  they  will  hold  more  securely  and  interfere  as  little  as  possible 
with  the  instruments. 

0)  NotQ.  The  T-square  is  used  against  the  left-hand  end  of  the  drawing  board 
if  the  pencil  is  used  in  the  right  hand.  If  the  pencil  is  used  in  the  left-hand,  the  re¬ 
verse  of  this  position  is  taken. 


12 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


2.  Sharpening  pencils.  For  shape  of  pencil  points  see  Fig.  2. 

A  2H  and  a  6H  pencil  are  recommended  for  use  in  this  course  but 
some  may  prefer  a  4H  or  5H  grade  in  place  of  the  6H. 

The  2H  pencil,  which  has  medium  hard  lead,  is  sharpened  with  a 
round  point  such  as  is  used  in  ordinary  writing. 


Fig.  2 


The  6H  pencil,  which  has  very  hard  lead,  may  be  sharpened  with 
either  a  round  or  a  flat  point.  The  flat  point  is  better  for  drawing  lines 
along  a  straight  edge,  or  ruler,  as  it  will  make  a  fine  line  and  at  the  same 
time  wear  longer  than  a  round  point.  The  round  point  is  better  for 
freehand  work,  and  for  marking  off  distances  from  the  scale.  A  good 
plan  is  to  sharpen  the  hard  pencil  with  a  flat  point  on  one  end  and  a 
round  point  on  the  other,  reversing  the  pencil  as  necessary  for  different 
kinds  of  work. 

Cut  away  the  wood  from  the  pencil  point  with  a  knife,  leaving  the 
lead  full  size.  Shape  the  lead  on  a  file,  a  piece  of  sandpaper  or  emery 
cloth.  Move  the  pencil  back  and  forth 'on  the  sandpaper  with  a  rocking 
motion  to  produce  the  oval-shaped  point. 

3.  Use  of  scale  in  measuring.  The  triangular  scale  commonly 
used  for  mechanical  drawing  has  six  graduated  surfaces,  Fig.  3.  One  of 
these  is  marked  off  in  inches  divided  into  halves,  quarters,  eighths  and 
sixteenths  as  is  customary  on  the  common  rule.  This  is  the  one  used 
for  making  ordinary,  full-size  measurements  and  is  the  only  one  that  the 
pupil  need  be  concerned  with  at  first.  The  other  scales  will  be  explained 
later  as  they  are  needed. 


LAYING  OUT  SHEET 


13 


When  measuring,  place  the  scale  on  the  paper  so  that  its  edge  is  paral¬ 
lel  with  the  direction  in  which  the  measurement  is  to  be  made,  usually 
along  some  line  already  drawn.  Have  the  zero  of  the  scale,  or  some 
other  main  graduation  on  the  scale,  exactly  coincide  with  the  point  from 
which  the  measurement  is  to  be  made. 


Place  the  pencil  point  at  the  proper  division  of  the  scale  for  the  re¬ 
quired  measurement,  holding  the  pencil  perpendicular  to  the  edge  of  the 
scale  and  slanting  slightly  away  from  it,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3.  Use  the 
round  point  of  the  pencil. 

Make  a  fine,  light  dot  by  rotating  the  pencil  between  the  fingers,  hav¬ 
ing  it  lightly  in  contact  with  the  paper.  Do  not  press  on  the  pencil  or  it 
will  indent  the  paper. 

4.  Use  of  T-square  in  drawing  horizontal  lines.  Remember 
that  a  right-handed  person  uses  the  T-square  head  against  the  left-hand 
edge  of  the  board  and  vice  versa. 

Place  the  T-square  on  the  paper  with  the  inside  of  the  head  against 
the  left-hand  end  of  the  board.  Fig.  4.  With  the  left  hand  on  the  T- 
square  head,  slide  it  into  position  for  drawing  the  required  line.  Slide 
the  left  hand  lightly  along  the  blade  and  rest  it  at  about  the  center  so  as 
to  hold  the  instrument  in  position. 

Place  the  pencil  point  in  position  against  the  upper  edge  of  the  T- 
square,  holding  the  pencil  so  that  its  top  slants  toward  the  right  and  also 
slants  slightly  away  from  the  edge,  or  toward  the  top  of  the  board,  thus 
bringing  the  pencil  point  into  close  contact  with  the  T-square  edge. 

Draw  the  line  with  a  motion  from  left  to  right.  Do  not  push  the  pen¬ 
cil,  point  first,  along  the  ruling  edge. 


14 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


The  full  and  dotted  lines  in  the  figure  show  two  positions  of  the  T- 
square,  giving  horizontal  lines  parallel  to  each  other.  Any  other  posi¬ 
tion  of  the  T-square  with  its  head  against  the  same  edge  of  the  board 
will  give  lines  parallel  to  these  lines  and  to  each  other.  Thus  the  T- 
square  gives  the  direction  of  the  line,  and  only  one  point  is  needed  to  lo¬ 
cate  such  a  line. 


0  O 

■ 

i 

j 

©  0] 
e  i 
0  © 

;  | 

i  _  ii 

i  T-square  i  i 

i  - ^ -  i   i 

0  0 

Drawino  oaoer  / 

- ^ - p - p - / 

Drawing  board 


Fig.  4 


A  * 

r 

0 

— 

\  v 

\  c 

\  0 

0 

> 

®  0 
©  1 
0  ®i 

1 

i 

i 

i 

i 

i 

T-square 

!  I 

I 

0 _ O 

Drqwing  paper  / 

Drawing  board  / 


Fig.  5 

5.  Use  of  triangle,  with  T-square,  in  drawing  vertical  lines. 

Place  the  T-square  on  the  drawing  board  with  the  head  bearing  firmly 
against  the  left-hand  end  of  the  board,  as  for  drawing  horizontal  lines. 


LAYING  OUT  SHEET 


15 


Place  the  triangle  with  one  of  its  edges  against  the  upper  edge  of  the  T- 
square,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5. 

Hold  the  T-square  in  place  by  resting  the  left  hand  lightly  upon  the 
blade.  By  using  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  slide  the  triangle  into  the 
exact  position  for  drawing  the  required  line,  and  hold  it  steady  with  the 
fingers  while  drawing  the  line  with  the  pen  or  pencil  held  in  the  right 
hand. 


EDGE  OF  PAPER 

17 


Fig.  6 


Always  use  the  triangle  in  the  position  shown,  having  the  ruling  edge 
toward  the  left,  that  is,  the  triangle  is  to  the  right  of  the  line  to  be 
drawn,  except  when  drawing  lines  near  the  extreme  end  of  the  T-square. 

Hold  the  pencil  with  its  top  slanted  away  from  the  triangle  so  as  to 
bring  the  point  close  to  the  ruling  edge.  Always  draw  lines  by  moving 
the  pencil  upwards,  away  from  the  edge  of  the  T-square;  that  is,  toward 
the  top  of  the  paper,  as  indicated  by  the  arrows  in  the  drawing,  Fig.  5. 
Do  not  push  the  pencil,  point  foremost,  along  the  paper. 

The  full  and  dotted  line  views  of  the  triangle,  Fig.  5,  show  two  posi¬ 
tions  of  the  triangle,  giving  vertical  lines  parallel  to  each  other.  Any 
other  position  of  the  triangle  with  either  edge,  except  the  hypotenuse, 
resting  against  the  T-square  held  in  this  position  will  give  lines  parallel 
to  these  lines  and  to  each  other.  Thus  the  direction  of  the  line  is  deter¬ 
mined  by  the  triangle,  and  one  measurement  locates  a  line. 


16 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Problem  1.  To  lay  out  paper  for  practice  work  in  making  let¬ 
ters  and  numerals.  Fig.  6  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  lines  to  be 
drawn  and  the  dimensions  to  be  used.  In  the  illustration  given  the 
paper  is  7-1/2"  x  11".  Any  other  size  paper  will  do  equally  well.  The 
border  lines  are  1/2"  from  the  edges  of  the  paper.  The  guide  lines  for 
the  letters  are  spaced  3/16"  apart. 


j)  EDGE  or  PAPER 


(g) 

Fig.  7 


Fig.  7  indicates  the  order  of  laying  out  the  lines  on  this  sheet.  To  lay 
out  these  lines  proceed  as  follows: — 

Place  the  scale  in  position  with  its  edge  parallel  to  the  left-hand  edge 
of  the  paper.  Mark  points  1/2"  from  the  upper  and  the  same  distance 
from  the  lower  edge  of  the  paper,  using  scale  and  pencil  as  shown  in  Fig.  3. 

With  the  T-square  used  as  explained  in  connection  with  Fig.  4,  thru 
the  points  just  located,  draw  upper  and  lower  border  lines  in  the  order 
indicated  by  the  numbers  on  the  illustration,  Fig.  7.  Make  lines  fine 
and  light,  using  hard  pencil . 

Place  the  edge  of  the  scale  in  contact  with  the  lower  margin  line  just 
drawn,  and  on  this  line  lay  off  points  1/2"  from  the  left-hand  edge,  and 
the  same  from  the  right-hand  edge  of  the  paper. 

Draw  lines  thru  these  points  in  the  order  shown  by  the  numbers,  using 
triangle  and  T-square  as  shown  in  Fig.  5.  These  will  be  the  end  margin 


LAYING  OUT  SHEET 


17 


lines.  Do  not  try  to  draw  margin  lines  just  the  right  length.  Make 
them  longer  than  needed  so  that  they  intersect. 

Lay  the  scale  along  the  left-hand  margin  line  and,  starting  at  the  top 
margin  line,  lay  off  distances  of  3/16"  from  top  to  bottom  as  shown  in 
the  illustration.  Keep  the  scale  stationary  while  making  these  measure¬ 
ments.  Do  not  move  it  along  or  the  result  is  likely  to  be  inaccurate. 
Draw  guide  lines,  using  T-square. 

With  the  triangle  used  on  T-square,  draw  very  light,  vertical  lines 
from  the  lower  to  the  upper  margin  lines,  spacing  them  about  1/4" 
apart.  These  need  not  be  measured  as  they  serve  merely  as  direction 
lines. 


1234  567890 


1  3  5  7  9 

2  4  8  8  16 


Fig.  8 


Use  this  sheet  for  practice  in  making  letters  and  figures  as  the  in¬ 
structor  may  direct. 

It  is  important  to  begin  practice  in  making  numerals  at  once  as  it  is 
necessary  to  use  them  from  the  beginning  in  placing  dimensions  upon 
the  drawings  and  this  should  be  neatly  and  accurately  done.  It  is  sug¬ 
gested  that  vertical  numerals  be  learned  and  used  by  the  beginner.  The 
form  and  proportion  shown  in  Fig.  8  may  be  adopted. 

Study  the  system  used  in  making  the  numerals  as  shown  in  the  first 
line  in  Fig.  8,  where  each  numeral  is  analyzed  into  strokes.  The  little 
arrow  shows  the  direction  of  each  stroke,  and  the  number  shows  the 
order  of  the  strokes.  When  practicing,  do  not  break  the  figures  up  into 
strokes  but  connect  them  so  that  they  appear  as  in  the  second  line,  Fig. 
8.  Use  a  2H  pencil  with  round  point  and  make  a  firm,  bold  stroke. 

Make  about  a  dozen  repetitions  of  each  figure  before  proceeding  to 
the  next,  so  as  to  learn  the  system  of  strokes  and  the  form  and  propor¬ 
tion  of  each  figure.  Practice  all  of  the  numerals  this  way  and  then  fill 
in  the  remainder  of  the  sheet  with  the  more  difficult  ones,  together  with 
fractions  and  arrow-heads.  Notice  that  each  fraction  is  about  twice  as 


18 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


high  as  the  whole  number,  but  each  number  of  the  fraction  is  smaller 
than  the  whole  number,  because  of  the  space  between  them. 

It  is  recommended  that  a  little  of  the  practice  be  done  in  the  class 
period,  and  the  remainder  outside  of  class.  Use  short  practice  periods. 
Practice  diligently,  as  it  is  essential  to  be  able  to  make  good  numerals  in 
order  to  produce  a  good  drawing. 


Problem  2.  Laying  out  sheet  for  regular  drawing.  Fig.  9 

shows  the  arrangement  of  lines  and  the  measurements  to  be  used  in  lay¬ 
ing  out  trim  lines  and  border  lines  on  the  paper  before  the  drawing  is 
made. 

The  paper  used  in  this  course  is  11"  wide  and  15"  long  when  pur¬ 
chased.  Note  that  these  are  the  dimensions  between  lines  representing 
the  edges  of  the  paper  on  the  drawing  in  Fig.  9. 

At  the  left  of  the  paper  a  line  (marked  "trim  line")  is  drawn  1/4"  from 
the  edge.  Near  the  right  of  the  paper  is  another  trim  line,  the  distance 
between  these  two  lines  being  14-1/2".  This  is  the  length  of  the  paper 
for  the  finished  drawing,  the  strips  outside  of  these  lines  being  cut  off 
when  the  drawing  is  completed,  thus  removing  the  thumb-tack  holes. 

The  border  lines  at  the  ends  of  the  paper  are  located  1/2"  inside  of  the 
trim  lines,  and  those  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  paper  are  1/2"  from 
the  top  and  bottom  edges  respectively.  This  gives  a  rectangle  10"  x 
13-1/2"  inside  of  which  the  drawing  is  to  be  located. 

A  space  1"  x  4"  is  reserved  in  the  lower  right-hand  corner  for  the 
title  and  other  data. 


LAYING  OUT  SHEET 


19 


\ 

Each  sheet  is  marked  off  in  this  way  before  the  drawing  is  commenced. 
Study  these  dimensions  carefully  and  be  sure  they  are  fully  understood. 

Before  beginning  to  lay  out  these  lines,  carefully  study  Fig.  10,  with 
the  accompanying  explanations.  Follow  these  directions  exactly  and  try 
to  'get  the  idea  of  the  system  followed  for  it  is  very  necessary,  in  doing 
this  kind  of  work,  that  good  methods  of  procedure  should  be  followed  in 
orde:  to  secure  the  best  results  in  the  most  direct  way. 


Fig.  10  shows  the  order  of  laying  out  trim  lines  and  border  lines. 

Fasten  the  paper  to  drawing  board  as  explained  in  connection  with 
Fig.  1. 

Place  the  scale  on  the  paper  so  that  its  edge  is  parallel  to  the  left-hand 
edge  of  the  paper  and  mark  points  1/2"  from  the  top  and  1/2"  from  the 
bottom  of  the  paper  using  the  scale  and  pencil  as  explained  under  Fig.  3. 

Thru  the  points  thus  located,  draw  lines  1  and  2,  Fig.  10,  with  the  T- 
square  as  explained  in  connection  with  Fig.  4. 

Lay  the  scale  along  line  2,  Fig.  10,  and  on  this  line  mark  points  locat¬ 
ing  the  positions  of  lines  3, 4,  5,  and  6,  in  accordance  with  measurements 
given  in  Fig.  9. 

Lines  number  3  and  6,  Fig.  10,  are  the  trim  lines,  and  lines  numbers  1, 
2, 4,  and  5  are  the  border  lines,  as  shown  in  Fig.  9. 

Now  locate  and  draw  lines  7  and  8,  Fig.  10,  in  the  order  given,  re¬ 
ferring  to  Fig.  9  for  measurements. 


20 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Notice  that  no  effort  is  made  to  make  these  lines  just  the  right  length 
when  drawing  them.  It  is  easier  to  allow  the  ends  to  extend  well  be¬ 
yond  the  points  of  intersection,  and  later  erase  the  parts  not  wanted. 
Leave  all  erasing  until  the  finishing  stage. 

Use  the  hard  pencil  and  make  all  lines  fine  and  very  light  for  all  pre¬ 
liminary  lay-out  work.  They  may  then  be  easily  erased  or  may  be  left 
on  the  finished  drawing  without  erasing. 


SECTION  2. 


Working  Drawings  of  Objects  Bounded  by  Plane  Surfaces  at 
Right  Angles  to  Each  Other.  No  Invisible  Outlines. 

Preliminary  explanations.  As  this  is  a  course  in  working  draw¬ 
ings,  the  student  must,  right  from  the  beginning,  understand  as  clearly 
as  possible  the  difference  between  a  picture  drawing,  made  according  to 
the  principles  of  perspective ,  and  a  working  drawing ,  made  in  accordance 
with  the  principles  of  what  is  called  orthographic  projection. 

Most  people  know  that  in  the  picture,  or  perspective  drawing,  the  ob¬ 
ject  is  represented  on  paper  as  it  would  appear  to  the  observer  if  viewed 
from  a  stationary  point.  The  observer  is,  therefore,  looking  along  di¬ 
verging  lines  and  the  picture  does  not  represent  the  object  in  its  true 
shape,  size  or  proportions.  A  picture  is  a  distorted  view  of  an  object 
but  it  looks  right,  as  we  see  things  that  way. 

The  working  drawing  is  one  that  is  designed  to  be  put  into  the  hands 
of. the  workman  as  a  guide  in  making  the  article  that  the  drawing  repre¬ 
sents.  It  must  give  the  information  that  is  needed  and  give  it  correctly, 
clearly  and  unmistakably. 

A  picture  drawing,  which  is  itself  a  distorted  view  of  the  object,  is 
clearly  not  the  best  kind  of  a  drawing  to  give  exact  information.  We 
therefore  resort  to  what  are  known  as  orthographic  views.  These  are 
in  reality  flat  drawings  or  views  that  represent  the  object  as  if  it  were 
projected  upon,  or  smashed  down  upon  a  plane  surface. 

In  making  such  views  for  a  working  drawing  the  observer  is  assumed 
to  be  looking  along  parallel  lines  as  indicated  by  the  arrows  in  Fig.  11, 
not  along  diverging  lines  as  in  the  case  of  a  picture  drawing.  Views  of 
an  object  thus  drawn  can  show  only  two  general  dimensions,  or  dis¬ 
tances  in  two  directions  only.  Distances  away  from  the  observer,  that 
is,  those  measured  from  front  to  back,  can  not  be  shown  in  the  same 
view  as  the  distances  in  other  directions.  Thus  in  the  front  view,  Fig. 
11,  only  length  and  height  can  be  shown;  another  view,  such  as  the  top 
or  end  view,  must  be  drawn  to  show  the  other  dimension. 

The  views  which  are  usually  shown  in  a  working  drawing  are  those 
which  would  result  from  looking  along  lines  perpendicular  to  the  prin¬ 
cipal  faces  of  the  object.  At  least  two  views  are  usually  necessary  to 
show  the  form  of  a  solid  object.  Often  three  or  more  views  are  drawn 
and  the  three-view  drawing  may  be  considered  the  typical  working  draw¬ 
ing. 


22 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Fig.  11  shows  the  arrangement  of  views  in  a  three-view  working  draw¬ 
ing.  The  three  views  here  given  represent  the  little  block  shown  in  the 
sketch  in  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  the  illustration.  The  front 
view  represents  the  object  as  it  would  appear  when  viewed  along  the 
parallel  lines  marked  A.  This  view  is  placed  in  the  lower  left-hand 
corner  of  the  paper.  Directly  above  the  front  view  is  the  top  view,  or 
plan,  as  seen  when  looking  along  the  lines  marked  B.  To  the  right  of 
the  front  view,  and  on  the  same  level,  is  the  end  view,  or  side  view,  as 
seen  when  looking  along  the  lines  marked  C.  This  is  the  typical  ar¬ 
rangement  for  the  views  in  a  three-view  drawing  and  should  be  adhered 
to  except  in  unusual  cases. 


These  views,  which  result  from  looking  along  parallel  lines,  are  the 
same  size  as  the  object,  unless  drawn  to  a  reduced  scale,  or  enlarged,  and 
represent  the  true  relationship  between  its  various  parts. 

A  working  drawing  must  give  two  kinds  of  information.  First,  it 
must  show  the  form  of  the  object,  of  all  its  parts,  and  the  relationship 
between  all  its  parts.  This  is  shown  by  the  views  themselves,  and  may 
be  designated  “form  description.”  Second,  it  must  show  sizes  of  the 
object,  of  all  its  parts  and  location  of  parts.  This  is  shown  by  lines  and 
figures  placed  upon  the  drawing  for  this  purpose,  and  may  be  designated 
“size  description.”  Fig.  12  shows  the  drawing  of  Fig.  11  with  the  di- 


WORKING  DRAWINGS 


23 


mensions  of  the  object  placed  upon  it.  The  proper  way  of  dimensioning 
a  drawing  will  be  described  later. 

In  this  course  the  process  of  making  a  working  drawing  is  recognized 
as  comprising  three  distinct  stages.  These  are: — 

1st.  The  constructive  stage ,  or  laying-out  stage. 

2nd.  The  dimensioning  stage. 

3rd.  The  finishing  stage. 

Problems.  In  working  the  problems  in  this  section,  the  following 
method  of  procedure  is  suggested:  Read  over  the  preliminary  explana¬ 
tions  for  the  first  stage  of  the  illustrative  problem;  then  work  thru  the 


first  stage  of  the  problem  assigned  by  the  instructor,  following  the  sug¬ 
gestions  given  in  the  text.  Proceed  to  the  second  and  third  stages  in 
the  same  manner,  working  the  problem  thru  each  stage  in  order,  after 
carefully  studying  the  explanatory  notes  and  the  illustrative  figures. 
Do  not  try  to  work  too  rapidly  at  first  but  be  sure  that  the  problem  and 
methods  are  fully  understood,  and  strive  for  good  results  in  the  finished 
drawing. 

Constructive  stage.  Fig.  13  shows  the  order  of  drawing  lines  for  a 
three- view  drawing  by  first  blocking  out  the  inclosing  rectangles  for  the 
different  views.  The  illustration  shows  the  layout  for  the  drawing  of 
the  tenon  piece  shown  in  the  sketch  in  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of 
the  figure. 


24 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


The  first  thing  to  consider  is  the  proper  spacing  of  the  views  within 
the  border  rectangle.  They  should  be  spaced  so  as  to  make  a  well  bal¬ 
anced  appearance  on  the  paper.  When  the  size  of  the  drawing  will  per¬ 
mit,  a  minimum  space  of  about  1"  to  a  maximum  space  of  about  1-1/2" 
may  be  allowed  between  the  views  for  drawings  of  the  size  required  by 
these  problems.  Make  the  distance  between  the  drawing  and  the  left- 
hand  border  line  equal  the  distance  between  the  drawing  and  the  right- 


9 

® 

* 

f 

(D~“ ^ 

% 

©-*■ 

Qb~ 

“*■ — ® 

Fig.  13 


hand  border  line,  or  nearly  so.  Also  make  the  distance  between  the 
drawing  and  the  lower  border  line  and  that  between  the  drawing  and  the 
upper  border  line  equal  if  these  spaces  are  fairly  large.  If  they  are 
small,  make  the  lower  space  wider  than  the  upper.  The  lower  line  of 
the  front  and  end  views,  represented  by  line  4  in  the  figure,  must  fall 
above  the  1"  x  4"  title  space. 

Determine  the  space  to  leave  between  the  views,  and  between  the 
drawing  and  the  border  lines,  by  calculation.  This  is  readily  done  as 
follows: 

Add  the  height  of  the  front  view  to  the  height  of  the  top  view,  and 
subtract  the  total  from  the  vertical  distance  between  the  upper  and 
lower  border  lines.  Divide  the  resulting  distance  into  three  spaces  as 
seems  best  for  the  problem  in  question.  This  gives  the  vertical  spacing 
for  the  views.  Remember  to  allow  from  1"  to  1-1/2"  between  views. 

Add  the  width  of  the  front  view  (in  a  horizontal  direction)  to  the 
width  of  the  end  view  and  subtract  the  total  from  the  horizontal  dis- 


WORKING  DRAWINGS 


25 


tance  between  the  right  and  left  border  lines.  Divide  the  resulting  dis¬ 
tance  into  three  spaces  as  seems  best  for  the  particular  problem  in  ques¬ 
tion.  This  gives  the  horizontal  spacing. 

In  laying  out  the  lines,  proceed  as  follows:  First  place  the  scale  on 
the  paper  with  the  edge  parallel  to  the  left-hand  edge  of  the  paper,  and 
locate  points  thru  which  lines  1,  2,  3,  and  4  will  pass,  making  the  dis¬ 
tances  correspond  with  the  calculation  made  to  bring  these  lines  at  the 
desired  distance  from  the  border  lines  and  from  each  other.  Mark  all 
points;  then  draw  the  lines  in  the  order  shown,  using  the  T-square. 

With  the  scale  laid  along  line  4,  lay  off  points  locating  lines  5,  6,  7,  and 
8,  and  draw  these  lines  in  order,  using  triangle  on  the  T-square.  The 
lines  thus  drawn  locate  the  boundary  lines  of  the  views. 

Now  draw  other  lines  needed  to  show  the  form  of  the  object.  Make 
all  lines  light  and  fine  with  hard  pencil,  allowing  them  to  overlap  at  the 
intersections  as  shown. 

The  student  should  now  begin  the  drawing  assigned  by  the  instructor, 
carrying  it  thru  the  constructive  stage.  Follow  the  method  given  in  the 
above  explanations. 

Dimensioning  stage.  As  already  explained  in  connection  with 
Figs.  11  and  12,  in  addition  to  showing  the  form  of  an  object  and  the  re¬ 
lationship  between  all  its  parts  by  means  of  orthographic  views,  it  is  also 
necessary  to  give  dimensions  if  the  drawing  is  to  be  used  as  a  guide  in 
construction  work.  The  dimensions  are  given  upon  lines,  called  dimen¬ 
sion  lines,  terminated  by  arrow-heads  which  point  to  the  lines  between 
which  the  dimension  reads. 

The  following  ideas  should  be  kept  constantly  in  mind  while  placing 
the  dimensions  upon  a  drawing. 

1.  Do  not  consider  that  you  are  trying  to  dimension  the  drawing, 
but  remember  you  are  trying  to  place  upon  the  drawing  the  dimensions 
of  the  object. 

2.  Try  to  decide  just  what  dimensions  will  be  used  by  the  workman 
in  making  the  article  and  give  these. 

3.  Locate  dimensions  so  that  they  will  give  the  information  as 
clearly  as  possible. 

4.  Make  numerals  clear  and  definite  so  they  may  be  easily  read. 

5.  Do  not  repeat  dimensions;  that  is,  show  each  dimension  once 
only. 

Fig.  14  shows  in  detail  the  generally  accepted  conventions  for  dimen¬ 
sioning  a  drawing. 


26 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Dimension  lines  are  light  lines  upon  which  the  dimension  figures  are 
placed.  An  opening  for  the  numeral  is  left  near  the  center  of  the  line. 
Arrow-heads  at  the  ends  of  the  dimension  lines  indicate  the  points  be¬ 
tween  which  the  dimension  reads. 

Extension  lines  are  light  lines  extending  out  from  the  drawing,  or  into 
the  views  themselves,  to  which  the  dimensions  refer. 

All  dimension  and  extension  lines  'should  be  light,  continuous  lines. 
In  pencil  drawings  they  should  be  made  with  the  hard  pencil.  First 
locate  them  with  very  light  strokes  in  the  “dimensioning  stage,”  and 


when  certain  they  are  correct,  finish  with  a  stronger  line,  making  them 
distinct  but  still  fine,  as  explained  later  under  "finishing  stage.”  Have 
pencil  point  sharp. 

Arrow-heads  should  be  made  in  size  and  shape  about  as  shown  in  Fig. 
14.  The  dimensions  for  arrow-heads  shown  in  the  lower  left-hand 
corner  of  the  illustration  may  well  be  used  for  arrow-heads  in  drawings 
of  the  size  made  in  this  course.  The  size  of  arrow-heads  may  vary  in 
different  drawings  but  should  be  uniform  in  the  same  drawing. 

Extension  lines  should  extend  about  1/8”  beyond  the  dimension  line, 
and  a  space  of  from  1/32”  to  1/16”  should  be  left  between  the  end  of  the 
extension  line  and  the  line  of  the  drawing  to  which  it  refers. 

Dimension  lines  should  be  about  1/4”  from  the  nearest  line  of  the 
drawing  or  from  the  nearest  dimension  line.  This  will  leave  room  to 
place  the  figures  on  the  lines  without  crowding,  and  at  the  same  time 
give  a  compact,  unified  appearance  to  the  views. 


WORKING  DRAWINGS 


27 


Dimension  lines  are  usually  placed  outside  of  the  views  in  order  not  to 
obscure  the  drawing,  but  they  may  be  placed  on  the  views  if  this  results 
in  greater  clearness.  It  is  better  to  place  the  dimensions  on  the  views 
than  to  use  long  extension  lines  that  may  be  difficult  to  follow. 

Dimension  figures,  or  numerals, should  be  clear  and  distinct  on  the  fin¬ 
ished  drawing.  They  should  be  made  large  enough  to  be  easily  read, 
but  not  so  large  as  to  be  out  of  proportion  to  the  drawing.  Beginners 
are  likely  to  make  figures  too  small  and  cramped  or  too  large  and  sprawl¬ 


ing.  For  the  size  of  drawings  made  in  this  course,  it  will  be  well  to  make 
whole  numbers  about  1/8"  high  and  the  total  height  of  fractions  about 
1/4".  This  would  vary  for  different  sized  drawing. 

Dimension  figures  should  always  be  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  di¬ 
mension  lines.  Dimension  figures  on  horizontal  lines  should  read  from 
the  bottom  of  the  drawing.  Those  which  are  on  vertical  lines  should 
read  from  the  right-hand  side  of  the  drawings.  On  inclined  dimension 
lines  the  figures  should  still  be  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  line,  but  in 
such  a  position  as  to  read  most  readily  from  the  bottom  or  the  right- 
hand  edge  of  the  drawing.  Study  the  examples  given  on  the  various 
drawings  in  the  text. 

Fig.  15  shows  four  arrangements  for  dimensions  upon  the  same  draw¬ 
ing.  In  No.  1  the  dimensions  are  outside  of  the  views,  are  systemati- 


28 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


cally  arranged,  and  are  located  centrally  on  the  drawing.  In  No.  2  they 
are  scattered  around  the  outside  of  the  views.  In  No.  3  they  are  placed 
upon  the  views,  and  not  close  to  the  lines  of  the  drawing.  In  No.  4  they 
are  irregularly  placed  and  scattered.  Other  arrangements  may  also  be 
made.  No.  1  is  considered  the  best  arrangement,  as  it  brings  the  dimen¬ 
sions  near  the  center  of  the  drawing  where  they  are  most  easily  seen. 
Do  not  scatter  dimensions  around  the  outside  of  the  drawing  unless  there 


is  no  better  way.  Also  avoid  placing  them  near  the  center  of  the  views 
as  in  No.  3. 

Fig.  16  illustrates  the  grouping  of  dimensions  as  opposed  to  scattering 
them. 

The  two- view  drawing  at  the  left  of  the  center  line  shows  the  dimen¬ 
sions  properly  grouped,  while  the  same  drawing  at  the  right  of  the  center 
line  shows  exactly  the  same  dimensions  but  they  are  scattered,  making 
it  much  more  difficult  to  find  them. 

Observe  that  when  the  dimensions  of  several  parts  of  an  object  are 
measured  continuously  they  should  be  placed  in  the  same  straight  line, 
the  extension  lines  and  arrow-heads  defining  the  limits  of  each.  The 
dimension  of  the  whole,  that  is,  the' sum  of  the  fractional  dimensions, 
should  be  placed  just  outside  the  line  bearing  the  part  dimensions,  if 
possible. 

Place  the  longer  lines  outside  the  shorter  ones  so  the  extension  lines 
need  not  cross  the  dimension  lines. 


WORKING  DRAWINGS 


29 


Notice  that  it  is  best  to  give  the  dimensions  on  the  view  that  best 
shows  the  shape  of  the  object.  Thus  in  the  illustration  here  given,  Fig. 
16,  most  of  the  dimensions  are  placed  on  the  front  view  as  this  view 
shows  the  distinctive  shape  of  the  object  most  clearly. 

Fig.  17  illustrates  several  methods  of  arranging  arrow-heads  and  fig¬ 
ures  in  placing  dimensions  upon  a  drawing. 


The  arrangements  shown  in  Fig.  17,  marked  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  are  used  for 
showing  small  dimensions  that  can  not  well  be  shown  in  the  ordinary 
way.  In  No.  1  the  arrow-heads  are  placed  upon  short  lines  outside  of 
the  extension  lines,  and  the  figure  is  written  between  them.  In  No.  2 
the  arrow-heads  are  outside  the  figure,  and  placed  at  the  end  of  a  line, 
called  a  “leader,”  which  has  an  arrow-head  at  its  end,  pointing  to  the 
place  that  the  figure  should  occupy.  Always  rule  leaders  with  a 
straight  edge  and  draw  them  so  that  the  figure  or  note  will  be  in  hori¬ 
zontal  or  vertical  position.  In  No.  3  the  arrow-heads  are  outside  of  the 
extension  lines,  and  the  figure  is  placed  at  the  end  of  one  of  the  short 
lines  provided  with  an  arrow-head,  this  line  itself  serving  as  a  leader. 
In  No.  4  the  arrow-heads  are  inside  of  the  extension  lines  and  the  figure 
placed  at  the  end  of  a  leader  as  in  No.  2.  No.  5  shows  the  arrangement 
commonly  used  for  all  larger  dimensions  as  previously  explained. 

At  No.  6  is  illustrated  a  rule  of  practice  in  locating  dimensions  that 
the  learner  may  easily  break.  The  incorrect  location  for  this  dimension 
and  several  correct  locations  are  shown.  The  rule  illustrated  here  may 


30 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


be  stated  as  follows:  Never  draw  a  dimension  line  in  such  a  location  that 
it  becomes  an  extension  of  an  object  linef  whether  the  object  line  be  a  full  or 
dotted  line . 

Fig.  18  illustrates  the  second  or  dimensioning  stage  in  making  a  draw¬ 
ing,  as  applied  to  the  drawing  of  the  tenon  piece,  the  constructive  stage 
of  which  has  been  explained  in  connection  with  Fig.  12. 


Fig.  18 

It  is  best  for  the  learner  to  locate  all  dimensions  upon  the  drawing 
before  carrying  any  part  of  it  to  the  finished  stage.  Do  not  locate 
dimensions,  however,  until  all  of  the  views  have  been  completely  blocked 
out,  as  it  will  then  be  easier  to  determine  the  best  location  for  the  dimen¬ 
sions.  Do  not  erase  any  of  the  construction  lines  before  locating  dimen¬ 
sions,  as  many  of  these  are  used  as  extension  lines  and,  if  erased,  must  be 
replaced,  making  more  work  on  the  drawing. 

In  placing  dimensions,  use  hard  pencil  for  all  lines,  arrow-heads  and 
numerals,  making  them  very  light  so  they  may  be  easily  erased  if  not 
properly  placed. 

The  student  should  now  work  his  problem  thru  this  stage,  observing 
the  suggestions  given,  and  placing  the  dimensions  in  what  seems  to  be 
the  best  location. 

Fig.  19  shows  a  drawing  carried  thru  the  finishing  stage.  This  is  the 
same  drawing  the  first  and  second  stages  of  which  have  already  been  ex¬ 
plained  in  connection  with  Figs.  13  and  18. 


WORKING  DRAWINGS 


31 


If  the  drawing  is  to  be  finished  in  pencil,  proceed  as  follows.  Observe 
the  following  five  distinct  steps  in  finishing,  and  carry  them  out  in  the 
order  given  and  in  the  manner  explained: — 

1.  Carefully  erase  all  unnecessary  lines. 

2.  Trace  all  object  lines  with  the  medium  pencil  (2H  pencil  is  good  for 
this),  using  round  point ,  medium  sharp.  Make  rather  strong,  dark  lines 
that  stand  out  well  on  the  paper.  First  draw  all  horizontal  lines  with  the 
T-square ,  beginning  at  top  of  paper  and  working  toward  the  bottom. 


Then  draw  all  vertical  lines  with  the  triangle  used  on  the  T-square,  begin¬ 
ning  at  the  left  side  of  the  paper  and  working  toward  the  right.  Always 
observe  this  order  in  drawing  lines.  Now,  draw  inclined  lines,  if  any. 

3.  Trace  all  extension  and  dimension  lines  with  the  hard  pencil ,  using 
a  sharp  point  and  making  all  lines  firm  and  distinct ,  but  fine.  Follow  the 
same  order  as  given  for  tracing  object  lines. 

4.  Make  all  numerals  and  arrow-heads  with  the  medium  pencil ,  ob¬ 
serving  form  and  proportions  shown  in  Fig.  14. 

5.  Trace  border  lines  with  medium  pencil. 

The  finished  drawing  should  have  a  neat,  clean-cut  appearance  with 
all  unnecessary  lines  and  all  soiled  places  cleaned  away. 

Fig.  20  shows  the  schedule  of  lines  that  are  commonly  used  in  working 
drawings. 

There  is  no  absolute  standard  in  regard  to  the  conventions  used  in 
mechanical  drawing,  and  no  uniformity  of  practice  as  to  the  kind  of  lines 


.32 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


used  thruout.  There  is  a  general  tendency,  however,  toward  the  simpli¬ 
fication  of  these  conventions.  The  tendency  is  away  from  the  use  of  so 
many  forms  of  dash  lines  and  the  substitution  of  full  lines.  The  lines 
given  here  conform  to  good  practice,  and  will  answer  all  purposes  for 
ordinary  working  drawings. 

Laying  out  or  construction  tine }  pencil  only* 


Line  representing  visible  out  tines  o/  objects. 


Line  representing  invisible  outlines  of  objects. 

Dimension  line  ,  extension  fine,  tine  of  centers , 
center  line  f  crosshutching  fine  ,  section  line. 


Border  fine  for  in  fed  drawings. 


Fig.  20 

Observe  these  lines  carefully  in  making  the  finished  drawings. 

The  instructor  should  assign  as  many  problems  in  this  section  as  seems 
necessary  to  give  the  pupil  reasonable  familiarity  with  these  first  funda¬ 
mental  principles. 


PROBLEMS— SECTION  2 


33 


Problem  2.  Make  a  three-view  working  drawing 


34 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Problem  4 


PROBLEMS— SECTION  2 


35 


Problem  5 


SECTION  3. 


Working  Drawings  of  Objects  Generally  Rectangular  in  Form 
Having  Some  Invisible  Outlines.  Drawings  Full  Size. 

Lettering.  In  order  to  place  notes  and  titles  upon  a  drawing  prop¬ 
erly,  it  is  necessary  to  learn  to  make  freehand  letters  neatly  and  rapidly. 
This  ability  can  be  acquired  only  by  careful  and  constant  practice. 

Fig.  21  shows  the  system  of  making  vertical  capitals  such  as  may  be 
used  for  the  lettering  in  this  course. 


2,  2_ 


'll 

L 

2. 

T 

'hi1' 

€ 

f 

<IA  AA  ;|X 

Vi 

*11 

1 

L 

T 

H 

E 

F 

N  M  K 

Y 

x 

V- 

W* 

$s 

2 

T*’ 

■ii  ii2 

s 

J  o 

2  fe 

X 

V 

W 

A 

Z 

U 

J  D  P 

R 

e 

o 

e» 

Tv 

£ 

£r 

DRAW 

B 

0 

0 

c 

G 

Fig 

s 

1.  21 

POST 

Lay  out  a  half  sheet  of  paper  the  same  as  previously  used  for  prac¬ 
ticing  numerals.  Use  this  practice  sheet  in  the  same  manner  as  sug¬ 
gested  for  practicing  numerals,  making  single  letters  only,  not  words  and 
sentences.  Repeat  each  letter  a  number  of  times  before  going  on  to  the 
next  so  as  to  learn  the  system  of  strokes  and  the  form  and  proportion  of 
each  letter.  Practice  all  letters  in  this  way  in  the  order  given;  then  fill 
in  the  remainder  of  the  sheet  with  those  that  are  most  difficult  to  make. 

Fig.  22  illustrates  the  use  of  dash  lines ,  commonly  called  i( dotted 
lines  ”  to  represent  invisible  outlines  of  objects.  The  drawing  shown 
here  is  that  of  the  block  shown  in  the  sketch  in  the  upper  right-hand 
corner  of  the  figure. 


LETTERING— INVISIBLE  OUTLINES 


37 


When  representing  objects  in  orthographic  projection,  or  as  views 
used  in  a  working  drawing,  the  object  is  looked  upon  as  if  it  were  trans¬ 
parent.  All  boundary  lines  of  surfaces  must  be  shown  in  their  proper 
relation,  whether  they  are  visible  or  invisible  to  one  looking  at  the  out¬ 
side  of  the  object.  The  draftsman  must  imagine  that  he  can  look  clear 
thru  the  object  and  draw  all  lines  in  their  proper  places,  representing 
those  that  are  visible  by  full  lines  and  those  that  are  invisible  by  dash 
lines.  This  representation  of  invisible  lines  is  often  absolutely  necessary 
in  order  to  make  clear  the  interior  parts  of  the  object. 


The  dash,  or  dotted  lines  used  for  this  purpose  should  be  drawn  about 
as  shown  in  Fig.  20  for  the  proper  appearance  in  the  finished  drawing. 
In  drawing  these  lines  first  in  the  constructive  stage,  they  should  be 
made  fine  and  light  the  same  as  other  lines.  The  beginner  may  dot 
them  in  the  constructive  stage  in  order  to  avoid  confusion,  but,  after  a 
little  experience,  all  lines  may  be  made  full  lines  in  the  constructive 
stage,  and  the  distinction  between  lines  of  different  character  made  in 
the  finished  drawing.  Invisible  lines  should  be  composed  of  dashes 
about  1/8"  long  with  spaces  about  1/32".  In  drawing  broken  lines, 
always  make  spaces  short,  no  matter  how  long  the  dashes  may  be. 

Fig.  23  shows  the  proper  way  of  joining  dotted  lines  to  full  lines  and 
to  each  other. 

At  No.  1  is  shown  the  correct  and  incorrect  way  of  connecting  dotted 
lines  to  full  lines  when  they  meet  as  shown. 


38 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


At  No.  2  is  given  the  right  and  wrong  way  of  connecting  a  dotted  line 
to  a  full  line  when  one  is  an  extension  of  the  other. 

At  No.  3  is  shown  the  right  and  wrong  way  of  connecting  dotted  lines 
when  they  meet  to  form  an  angle. 

At  No.  4  is  shown  the  correct  and  incorrect  way  of  connecting  one 
dotted  line  to  another  when  they  meet  as  shown. 


Study  these  illustrations  carefully  and  observe  them  strictly  when 
drawing  dotted  lines. 

Problems.  In  working  the  problems  in  this  section  follow  the  same 
procedure  as  for  those  in  the  previous  group.  Review  the  explanations 
given  for  the  previous  problems  and  try  to  get  these  fixed  so  clearly  in 
mind  that  it  will  become  habitual  to  work  in  accordance  with  them. 

The  student  should  make  such  drawings  as  the  instructor  may  assign 
and  after  each  stage  of  a  drawing  is  completed  it  should  be  checked  by 
the  instructor  before  the  pupil  takes  up  the  next  stage  in  the  work. 


PROBLEMS— SECTION  3 


39 


CLAMP  STRAP 


Problem  7.  Make  a  three-view  working  drawing 


40 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


d 

] - 1 

b 

DRAW  END  VIEW  AND 
GIVE  DIMENSIONS. 


MAIN  BLOCK  f  X  5 
KEY  STRIPS  i’xjfx  2 
GROOVES  WIDE,  |  DEEP. 


SANDPAPER  BLOCK 


Problem  9 


PROBLEMS— SECTION  3 


41 


Problem  10 


SECTION  4. 


Working  Drawings  of  Objects  Generally  Rectangular  in  Shape 
Similar  to  Those  in  Preceding  Sections  But  Requiring  to  Be 
Drawn  to  Reduced  Scale. 

Preliminary  explanations.  Articles  that  are  too  large  to  be  drawn 
full  size  must  be  reduced,  or  “drawn  to  scale,”  making  the  drawing 
smaller  than  the  object.  Five  of  the  six  graduated  faces  on  the  drafts¬ 
man’s  triangular  scale  contain  reducing  scales  for  this  purpose.  By 


( 

L  a.  &  _ J 

b - 5§  — j 

TE 

"TTC  1  G  1  C- 

L 

r- 1  l  i  } 

\  \ 

.  ' 

t  ; 

1  1 

- 1 - 1 

\  1 

i  ) 

<  GIVEN  LINE. .  MEASUREMENT 

^  GIVEN  LINE  .  M 

EA5UREMENT 

WHOLE  NUMBER 

iCTION 

MADE  FROM  FRACTION 

TOWARD  WHOLE  NUMBER. 

"  MADE  FROM  V 
TOWARO  FRA 

Fig.  24 


means  of  these  a  drawing  may  be  reduced  automatically  and  no  com¬ 
putations  are  necessary  to  obtain  the  desired  size  and  proportions  in  the 
drawing. 

The  method  of  reading  the  scale  for  this  purpose  is  shown  in  Figs.  24 
and  25. 

Fig.  24  illustrates  the  use  of  the  scale  when  such  ratios  as  1/2”  equals 
1”,  3/4”  equals  1”,  3/8”  equals  1”,  etc.,  are  desired  between  the  drawing 
and  the  object,  that  is,  1/2”  on  the  drawing  is  to  represent  1”  on  the  ob¬ 
ject,  etc. 

In  the  example  given  in  the  figure,  it  is  assumed  that  the  worker  plans 
to  make  his  drawing  to  the  scale  of  1/2”  equals  1”,  which  is  a  very  com¬ 
mon  scale.  In  this  case  use  the  graduated  surface  of  the  scale  which  has 
the  fraction  1/2  marked  at  one  end.  Here  the  largest,  or  main  divisions 
on  the  scale  are  actually  1/2”  in  length  and  each  of  these  will  represent 
1”  on  the  object.  In  using  the  scale,  learn  to  think  of  these  divisions  as 
being  actual  inches,  not  as  half  inches.  Think  of  them  as  smaller  inches. 


DRAWING  TO  SCALE 


43 


The  whole  numbers  are  read  from  the  point  marked  zero  toward  the 
opposite  end  of  the  scale,  while  the  fractions  of  an  inch  are  read  from  the 
point  marked  zero  in  the  opposite  direction  on  the  division  that  is  still 
further  subdivided  for  this  purpose.  When  making  measurements, 
place  the  whole  number  at  the  point  from  which  the  measurement  is  to 
be  made,  and  measure  past  the  zero  to  the  correct  fraction,  or  place  the 
fraction  at  the  point  from  which  the  measurement  is  to  be  made,  and 
measure  past  the  zero  to  the  whole  number.  Study  the  illustration  in 
the  figure  so  as  to  understand  this. 


V  m  1  _ 

> —  \-z£ - « 

w  -  z 

> 

j_ La 

* 

■ 

-J 

— 

— i - - - 1 

.K  GIVEN  CINE  .  MEASUREMENT 

<  GIVEN  LINE.  MEASUREMENT 

:-':7 

MAOE  FROM  FRACTION 

TOWARO  WHOLE  NUMBER. 

MADE  FROM  WHOLE  NUMBER 

TOWARD  FRACTION. 

Fig.  25 


This  is  not  the  way  in  which  the  scale  is  really  designed  to  be  used. 
The  main  divisions  on  the  scale  are  intended  to  represent  feet  instead  of 
inches  and  its  use  in  this  way  is  explained  above  in  connection  with  Fig. 
25.  When  used  as  explained  above  it  will  be  noticed  that  fractions  less 
than  1/4"  are  not  so  easy  to  read.  In  the  case  of  the  half-inch  scale, 
three  of  the  smallest  divisions  represent  1/8"  and  one  and  one-half  of 
these  divisions  represent  1/16".  This  fact  makes  this  use  of  the  scale 
a  little  difficult  at  first,  but  with  a  little  practice,  it  is  possible  for  the 
student,  especially  if  he  is  not  proficient  in  dividing  fractions,  to  make 
half  scale  drawings  much  more  quickly  and  accurately  in  this  way  than 
by  using  the  regular  foot  rule  or  scale. 

Half -scale  drawings  may  also  be  made  by  using  the  ordinary  foot  rule 
or  scale,  dividing  each  dimension  by  two  in  order  to  obtain  the  distance 
to  lay  off  with  the  scale.  However,  because  of  the  computations  in¬ 
volved,  mistakes  are  more  likely  to  occur  when  using  this  method. 

Fig.  25  illustrates  the  use  of  the  scale  when  the  main  divisions  are  con¬ 
sidered  as  representing  feet  instead  of  inches,  as  is  the  case  in  Fig.  24. 


44 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


For  this  purpose  proceed  as  already  explained  but  consider  each  of  the 
divisions  on  the  scale  as  being  a  foot  instead  of  an  inch.  The  graduated 
division  at  the  end  of  the  scale  thus  becomes  a  small  foot  rule  graduated 
into  inches  and  fractions  of  an  inch.  This  is  the  best  way  to  use  the 
scale  for  most  drawings  particularly  where  such  ratios  as  1/4"  equals  1" 
and  1/8"  equals  1"  are  to  be  used. 

Observe  that  1/4"  equals  1",  or  l/4th  scale,  is  the  same  as  3"  to  the 
foot  (written  3"  equals  I'-O"),  and  that  1/8"  equals  1",  or  l/8th  scale, 
is  the  same  as  1-1/2"  to  the  foot  (written  1-1/2"  equals  l'-O").  It  is 
easier  to  think  of  the  scale  in  terms  of  "inches  to  the  foot"  rather  than  in 
terms  of  "inches  to  the  inch"  in  most  cases  where  this  is  possible. 

Remember  that  the  size  of  the  object,  not  the  size  of  the  drawing, 
should  be  placed  upon  the  drawing.  Therefore  give  the  full-size  dimen¬ 
sions  on  the  drawing. 

Problems.  Make  such  drawings  as  may  be  assigned  using  the  scale 
as  explained.  If  the  explanation  is  not  fully  understood,  ask  the  in¬ 
structor  to  illustrate. 


Problem  11.  Make  a  three- view  working  drawing 


PROBLEMS— SECTION  4 


45 


TOOL  BRACKET. 


Problem  12.  Make  a  three-view  working  drawing 


Problem  13.  Make  a  three-view  working  drawing 


46 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Problem  14.  Make  a  three-view  working  drawing 


FLOWER  BOX 


Problem  15 


SECTION  5. 


Working  Drawings  of  Objects  Having  Inclined  Surfaces,  That 
Is,  Surfaces  Other  Than  at  Right  Angles  With  Each  Other. 

Drawings  Full  Size  or  Reduced. 

Lettering.  Lay  out  another  sheet  for  practice  lettering.  On  this 
sheet  practice  making  actual  words  and  sentences.  In  doing  this  the 
problem  of  proper  spacing  of  letters  will  be  encountered.  Try  to  space 
the  letters  so  that  each  word  will  look  compact  but  not  crowded ;  space 


the  letters  so  as  to  give  the  appearance  of  equal  spacing  between  the 
letters.  Notice  that  letters  can  not  actually  be  spaced  equal  distances 
apart  in  the  words,  but  must  be  placed  so  as  to  appear  equally  spaced. 
Study  this  question  of  spacing  carefully.  Leave  a  generous  space  be¬ 
tween  words. 

A  number  of  such  practice  sheets  should  be  made  during  the  course,  as 
it  is  not  possible  to  learn  to  letter  well  by  doing  only  what  is  required  on 
the  drawings. 

Preliminary  explanations.  Fig.  26  shows  a  drawing  of  an  object 
which  has  some  surfaces  at  other  than  right  angles  to  each  other.  No¬ 
tice  that  in  the  front  view  the  edges  of  the  inclined  surfaces  appear  as 
lines  inclined  to  the  horizontal  and  show  the  true  angle  between  these 


48 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


surfaces.  In  the  top  view  these  same  edges  appear  as  parallel  hori¬ 
zontal  lines  and  in  the  end  view  they  appear  as  parallel  vertical  lines. 
The  line  AB  in  each  view  of  the  drawing  represents  the  same  line  on  the 
object. 

The  lines  AB  and  CD  in  the  top  and  end  views  are  called  foreshortened 
lines.  They  are  not  shown  in  their  true  length  in  these  views  as  they 
slant  away  from  the  plane  of  the  paper.  The  surface  ABCD  in  these 
same  views  is  foreshortened  for  the  same  reason. 


In  order  that  a  line  may  appear  in  its  true  length  on  any  view  of  a 
drawing  it  must  be  parallel  to  the  paper  in  the  view  in  question,  and  in 
order  that  a  surface  may  appear  in  its  true  size  it  must  be  so  placed  in 
space  as  to  be  parallel  to  the  plane  on  which  it  is  represented. 

There  are  two  ways  of  dimensioning  inclined  lines  and  surfaces.  One 
is  by  giving  the  coordinates ,  the  other  by  angles . 

The  method  used  in  the  illustration  in  Fig.  26  is  that  of  giving  coordi¬ 
nates.  Notice  that,  when  this  is  done,  the  vertical  and  horizontal  dis¬ 
tances  from  some  line  of  reference  to  lines  that  pass  thru  the  point  to  be 
located  are  given.  The  length  of  the  inclined  edge  itself  is  rarely  given. 

Fig.  27  shows  the  method  of  locating  inclined  lines  when  dimensioned 
by  angles  expressed  in  terms  of  degrees.  In  such  a  case,  the  dimension 
line  is  drawn  as  the  arc  of  a  circle  having  its  center  at  the  vertex  of  the 


INCLINED  SURFACES 


49 


angle  to  be  measured,  as  shown  in  the  drawing  of  the  little  paper  weight 
in  the  figure. 

At  No.  1  the  arrow-heads  are  outside  of  the  lines  and  the  figure  is  be¬ 
tween  them. 

At  No.  2  the  arrow-heads  are  outside  of  the  lines  and  one  of  the  lines 
upon  which  the  arrow-heads  are  placed  serves  as  a  “leader”  for  the  fig¬ 
ure. 

At  No.  3  both  arrow-heads  and  figures  are  between  the  lines  to  be 
located. 


In  each  of  the  above,  the  arrow-heads  refer  to  the  object  lines  them¬ 
selves. 

In  No.  4  both  the  arrow-heads  and  the  figure  are  between  the  lines, 
one  arrow-head  referring  to  an  object  line  and  one  to  an  extension  line. 

At  No.  5  two  extension  lines  are  used. 

When  dimensioning  angles,  any  of  these  arrangements  may  be  used  as 
seems  best  under  the  circumstances. 

When  making  drawings  of  objects  having  inclined  surfaces,  it  is  often 
necessary  to  draw  lines  parallel  and  perpendicular  to  each  other  when 
these  lines  can  not  be  drawn  with  the  T-square  and  triangle  in  the  ordi¬ 
nary  position.  Fig.  28  illustrates  one  method  of  drawing  lines  parallel 
and  perpendicular  to  a  given  line  by  means  of  the  triangles. 

Let  AB  represent  a  given  line  in  any  position  on  the  paper.  Place 
triangles  X  and  Y  so  that  the  hypotenuse  of  one  is  in  contact  with  the 
hypotenuse  of  the  other.  Keep  them  thus  in  contact  and  moving 
them  both  together  adjust  them  so  that  one  leg  of  Y  is  coincident  with 


50 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


the  line  AB.  Hold  triangle  X  in  position  and  slide  Y  into  a  new  posi¬ 
tion  as  indicated  by  that  marked  Z.  The  line  CD  drawn  with  the  tri¬ 
angle  in  this  new  position  is  parallel  to  the  line  AB  and  the  line  EF  is 
perpendicular  to  AB. 

Practice  this  till  you  can  quickly  draw  lines  parallel  and  perpendicular 
in  this  way. 


It  may  be  required,  also,  to  draw  lines  at  certain  given  angles  to  each 
other,  as  45  degrees,  60  degrees,  30  degrees,  etc. 

Figs.  29  and  30  show  the  positions  in  which  the  45  degree  triangle  may 
be  used  in  connection  with  the  T-square  to  draw  lines  at  45  degrees  to 
any  given  horizontal  or  vertical  line.  In  each  illustration  shown,  the 
given  horizontal  line  is  lettered  AB,  and  the  given  vertical  line  lettered 
CD.  The  resultant  lines  at  45  degrees  to  these  lines  are  lettered  EF 
and  GH. 

Study  these  positions  carefully  and  practice  them  so  as  to  be  able  to 
quickly  draw  lines  in  this  manner  as  required. 

Figs.  31,  32,  and  33  illustrate  the  positions  in  which  the  30-60  degree 
triangle  may  be  used  in  connection  with  the  T-square  to  draw  lines  mak¬ 
ing  angles  of  30  degrees  and  60  degrees  with  any  given  horizontal  or 
vertical  line. 

In  each  of  figures  31  and  32  the  given  horizontal  line  is  marked  AB 
and  the  given  vertical  line  marked  CD.  The  resultant  lines  making 


INCLINED  SURFACES 


51 


angles  of  30  degrees  and  60  degrees  with  these  lines  are  marked  EF  and 
GH. 

In  Fig.  33  the  given  lines  are  marked  AB,  CD  and  EF  while  the  re¬ 
sultant  lines  are  marked  GH  and  KL. 

Study  these  positions  of  the  triangle  and  the  resultant  angles  so  as  to 
be  able  to  rapidly  draw  them  in  this  manner  as  needed. 


52 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Problems.  Make  such  drawings  as  may  be  assigned  by  the  instruc¬ 
tor  under  this  division,  applying  the  principles  and  methods  as  explained. 
Be  sure  that  each  step  is  properly  understood  and  that  the  correct 
methods  of  procedure  are  used. 


PROBLEMS — SECTION  5 


53 


Problem  16.  Make  a  three- view  working  drawing 


Problem  17.  Make  a  three-view  working  drawing 


54 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


LE-G_5 _ )‘X3'k 


Braces 


3" 
•4  ■ 


x5" 


5AW  HORSE 


Problem  19.  Make  a  three- view  working  drawing 


PROBLEMS— SECTION  5 


55 


\ _ / 


— 

5 

8 

- 

\ 

/ 

COMPLETE  FRONT  AND  TOP 


VIEWS  AND  GIVE 

DIMENSIONS. 

SUPPLY  ALL 

DIMENSIONS 

NOT  GIVEN 

IN 

PROBLEM. 

WALL  SHELF 


Problem  20 


SECTION  6. 


Working  Drawings  of  Straight  Line  Objects  of  Greater  Com¬ 
plexity.  Laying  Out  by  Means  of  Center  Lines. 

Preliminary  explanations.  In  the  drawings  that  have  been  made 
up  to  this  time  in  this  course  it  has  been  intended  that  they  should  be 
laid  out  by  first  drawing  the  inclosing  forms,  or  rectangles,  to  obtain  the 
location  of  the  views  on  the  paper.  This  method  is  usually  satisfactory 


Fig.  34 


many  objects,  however,  which  being  symmetrical  in  form,  the  drawing 
can  best  be  laid  out  from  center  lines. 

Fig.  34  shows  the  method  of  laying  out  a  drawing  by  means  of  center 
lines.  The  illustration  given  here  is  the  three-view  drawing  of  the  little 
block  shown  in  the  sketch  in  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  the  figure. 

First  draw  the  center  lines  marked  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  which  are  the  center 
lines  for  the  views,  locating  them  so  as  to  give  the  desired  spacing  of  the 
views  within  the  border  rectangle.  In  the  example  given,  center  lines 
are  drawn  both  ways  thru  each  of  the  views,  as  each  of  the  views  is  sym¬ 
metrical  with  respect  to  a  center  line  in  both  directions.  In  cases  where 
the  views  are  not  symmetrical  with  the  center  line,  there  is  no  advan¬ 
tage  in  drawing  such  a  line,  as  a  rule.  Fig.  41  illustrates  a  drawing  in 


DIMENSIONING 


57 


which  there  is  no  horizontal  center  line  in  the  front  and  end  views  as 
these  views  would  not  be  symmetrical  with  respect  to  such  a  line. 

Next  locate  points  on  the  center  lines  thru  which  lines  5,  6,  7,  8,  9, 10, 
11,  and  12  are  to  be  drawn.  These  points  usually  can  be  located  best  by 
using  the  dividers  and  marking  off  one-half  the  required  distance  each 
side  of  the  center  lines.  Locate  all  points  before  drawing  any  of  these 
lines;  then  draw  the  lines  in  the  order  given. 


In  a  similar  manner  locate  and  draw  other  lines  necessary  to  show  the 
form  of  the  object. 

Figs.  35  and  36  show  the  dimensioning  and  finishing  stages  of  the 
drawing  blocked  out  in  Fig.  34. 

In  the  second  stage,  all  dimension  lines,  extension  lines,  arrow-heads 
and  figures  are  located  in  light  lines  with  the  hard  pencil.  Place  dimen¬ 
sion  to  one  side  of  the  center  lines,  as  shown  in  Fig.  36.  Do  not  use 
center  lines  as  dimension  lines. 

When  center  lines  are  used,  the  dimensioning  of  the  drawing  is  often 
simplified,  as  the  center  lines  denote  symmetry,  and  like  dimensions  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  center  lines  need  not  both  be  given. 

Fig.  37  shows  the  same  drawing  as  that  of  Fig.  36  but  in  this  case  the 
dimensions  are  given  in  opposite  directions  from  the  center  line,  whereas 
in  Fig.  36  the  total  dimensions  of  the  corresponding  parts  are  given. 
This  is  a  common  method  of  giving  dimensions  when  it  is  known  that 


58 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Fig.  36 


Fig.  37 


the  workman  will  lay  out  dimensions  from  center  lines  in  making  the 
object. 

Fig.  38  shows  the  same  drawing  as  Fig.  36  dimensioned  without 
center  lines. 

In  finishing,  erase  all  unnecessary  lines  and  trace  remaining  lines  as 
hitherto  explained. 


DIMENSIONING 


59 


Notice  that  the  center  lines  remain  on  the  drawing  as  fine,  light  lines 
and  help  to  indicate  the  symmetry  of  the  object. 

Problems.  Work  such  problems  as  may  be  assigned,  using  center 
lines  and  carefully  studying  the  question  of  dimensioning. 


60 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Problem  21.  Make  top  and  front  views.  Place  paper  on  the  board  with  long 
dimension  perpendicular  to  T-square  edge,  and  make  the  1"  x  4"  title  space  at 
bottom  of  paper;  that  is,  at  the  narrow  end 


Problem  22.  Make  a  three-view  working  drawing 


PROBLEMS— SECTION  6 


61 


Problem  23.  Make  a  three-view  working  drawing 


PEED  TROUGH 


Problem  24 


SECTION  7. 

Working  Drawings  of  Objects  Some  Outlines  of  Which  Are  Cir¬ 
cles  or  Arcs  of  Circles. 

Preliminary  explanations.  No  attempt  will  be  made  here  to  ex¬ 
plain  the  proper  method  of  adjusting  and  manipulating  the  compasses  in 
drawing  circular  curves.  This  should  be  explained  by  the  instructor 
when  the  class  is  ready  to  do  circular  work. 

Fig.  39  illustrates  .the  method  of  laying  out  views  of  an  object  that  is 
formed  partly  of  cylindrical  surfaces. 


-t — : 

V  | 

4 

'  r 

\ 

,  k 

pH® 

4 

-HD 

i 

-K§)  |-H© 

4 

- 1 — 

4 

d>— 

® — 

Fig.  39 


The  method  shown  indicates  the  general  procedure  for  an  object  of 
this  kind,  but  may  need  some  variation  to  suit  other  problems. 

First,  lay  out  the  center  lines  1,2,  and  3,  locating  them  so  as  to  bring 
the  views  in  the  desired  position  on  the  paper. 

Next  locate  points  on  the  center  lines  thru  which  the  lines  4,  5,  6,  7, 
8,  9,  10,  and  11  will  pass.  Use  dividers,  when  possible,  as  explained  in 
connection  with  Fig.  31.  Draw  these  lines  in  the  order  of  the  numbers. 

With  the  compass  draw  circle  marked  12.  Also  draw  arcs  of  circles 
representing  the  rounded  corners  as  shown  in  the  top  view. 

Draw  other  lines  necessary  to  complete  the  views. 

In  making  drawings  of  objects  that  have  cylindrical  forms,  it  is  best 
to  draw  first  the  circular  view  of  the  cylinder  in  the  view  in  which  it  ap- 


CIRCLES  AND  ARCS 


63 


pears  and  then  project  to  the  other  views  to  show  the  rectangular  view 
of  the  cylinder,  rather  than  to  draw  first  the  rectangular  view  and  then 
project  and  draw  the  circle.  In  other  words,  it  is  usually  best  to  draw 
circles  and  semicircles  before  drawing  the  corresponding  straight  lines 
in  the  other  views.  Arcs  of  less  than  a  semicircle  are  usually  connected 
to  tangent  lines,  these  tangent  lines  being  drawn  first.  This  applies  to 
the  laying  out  or  constructive  stage  of  the  drawing. 


When  a  quarter  circle  is  to  be  drawn  tangent  to  two  lines  which  meet 
at  a  right  angle,  the  method  shown  in  the  lower  right-hand  corner  of  the 
top  view  may  be  used.  This  is  probably  the  best  way  when  the  circle 
has  a  rather  large  radius,  and  best  for  the  beginner.  For  circles  with 
small  radii  the  centers  are  usually  located  by  trial.  The  method 
shown  here  should  be  clear  without  further  explanation. 

Fig.  40  shows  various  methods  of  dimensioning  radii  and  diameters  of 
circles  and  of  locating  circles. 

Nos.  1  to  5  show  the  different  ways  of  dimensioning  radii  of  circles. 
No.  1  is  usually  used  and  considered  best  when  the  radius  is  long  enough 
and  the  center  is  accessible.  Nos.  2,  3,  and  4  are  used  for  small  radii. 
No.  5  is  used  for  long  radii  when  the  center  is  not  accessible.  In  Nos.  3, 
4,  and  5  the  center  is  not  shown  but  the  leader  must  be  in  line  with  a 
radius  of  the  arc  which  is  being  dimensioned. 

Nos.  6  and  7  show  methods  of  giving  diameters  when  the  dimension 
is  given  to  the  circular  view. 


64 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


No.  8  shows  two  views  of  a  cylinder  and  the  way  to  give  the  diameter 
when  this  dimension  is  given  to  the  rectangular  view  of  the  cylindrical 
surface.  In  this  case  it  is  best  to  add  the  abbreviation  D.  or  Dia.  after 
the  dimension  figure. 

Nos.  9  and  10  show  the  proper  method  of  locating  centers  of  circles. 
Circles  are  always  located  by  means  of  their  centers  not  by  means  of  the 
circumference.  Draw  lines  thru  the  centers  and  locate  these  lines  by 


Fig.  41 

dimensions  referring  to  some  line  of  the  object,  or  to  some  other  refer¬ 
ence  line  such  as  a  center  line.  Do  not  give  dimensions  on  center  lines. 

In  giving  the  dimension  of  complete  circles,  the  diameter,  not  the 
radius,  is  usually  given. 

Fig.  41  shows  the  drawing  of  Fig.  39  carried  to  the  finished  stage. 

Observe  the  method  of  dimensioning  the  circular  curves. 

When  lining  in  a  drawing  of  this  kind,  either  in  pencil  or  ink,  first 
draw  the  circles  and  arcs  of  circles,  then  the  straight  lines  in  the  proper 
order. 

Notice  that  the  center  lines  remain  as  part  of  the  finished  drawing. 

Notice,  also,  that  the  curved  surfaces  appear  as  curves  in  the  top 
view  only  in  this  drawing,  and  that  the  form  of  the  object  appears  rec¬ 
tangular  in  the  other  views. 

Problems.  Make  such  drawings  as  the  instructor  may  assign. 
Study  carefully  the  way  the  cylindrical  surfaces  appear  in  the  different 
views  of  the  drawings  so  as  to  become  perfectly  familiar  with  the  repre¬ 
sentation  of  objects  of  this  kind. 


PROBLEMS— SECTION  7 


65 


Problem  26.  Make  a  three-view  working  drawing 


66 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Problem  27.  Make  a  three- view  working  drawing 


complete  end  view  and 

GIVE  DIMENSIONS. 


MALLET  H  E.AD 


Problem  28 


PROBLEMS— SECTION  7 


67 


Problem  29 


SECTION  8. 

Tracing  and  Blueprinting.  Lettering,  Titles,  Etc. 

Preliminary  Explanations.  Before  beginning  to  make  tracings, 
the  titles  and  other  data  should  be  lettered  upon  the  drawings  that  have 
been  made  so  as  to  trace  this  data  upon  the  inked  drawing  at  the  same 
time  the  drawing  itself  is  traced. 

Lay  out  light  guide  lines  in  the  1"  x  4"  space  as  indicated  in  Fig.  42. 
In  the  second  space  from  the  top,  place  the  name  or  title  of  the  object 
drawn.  In  the  fourth  space,  place  the  scale  and  the  date.  In  the  sixth 
space,  place  the  student’s  name.  Try  to  arrange  the  title,  etc.,  so  as  to 
secure  an  appearance  of  balance  with  respect  to  the  center  line  of  the 
space,  as  illustrated  in  the  Fig.  42. 


Leave  guide  lines  on  the  pencil  drawing,  but  do  not  ink  guide  lines  on 
tracings  or  on  inked  drawings . 

Inked  tracings  are  made  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  duplication.  Dupli¬ 
cations  are  usually  made  by  the  blueprint  process,  the  tracing  acting  as  a 
negative  thru  which  the  print  is  made.  Tracings  are  commonly  made 
upon  tracing  paper  or  tracing  cloth.  Tracing  paper  will  serve  the  pur¬ 
pose  for  the  work  of  this  course.  It  is  cheaper  than  cloth,  and  is  used 
largely  where  durability  is  not  essential.  A  reasonably  transparent  and 
good  grade  of  tracing  paper  should  be  used. 

Tracing  is  recommended  as  the  first  work  in  inking  for  two  reasons: 
First,  it  represents  the  commonest  kind  of  ink  work  done  in  actual  com¬ 
mercial  practice,  and,  therefore,  gives  experience  in  the  most  important 


TRACING  AND  BLUEPRINTING 


69 


type  of  inking  drawings.  Second,  if  a  mistake  is  made  when  inking 
upon  drawing  paper,  it  is  difficult  to  correct  such  mistakes,  especially  if 
they  are  serious  ones,  and  leave  the  drawing  in  good  condition.  Fre¬ 
quently  the  drawing  is  spoiled,  and  it  is  necessary  to  re-draw  it  in  pencil 
before  inking  again.  This  is  often  discouraging  to  the  beginner  and 
wasteful  of  time.  If  the  tracing  is  spoiled,  another  tracing  can  be  made 
without  making  over  the  pencil  drawing.  More  actual  work  can  be 
done  in  the  same  time  this  way. 

Cut  the  tracing  paper  a  little  larger  than  the  drawing  paper  and  fasten 
it  over  the  drawing  paper  with  thumb-tacks,  having  the  tacks  outside  of 
the  drawing  paper.  Have  the  tracing  paper  well  stretched  and  free 
from  wrinkles. 

Draw  pencil  lines  to  correspond  with  the  trim  lines  and  with  the  upper 
and  lower  edges  of  the  drawing  paper.  The  tracing  will  be  trimmed  to 
these  lines  when  finished. 

The  instructor  will  explain  and  demonstrate  the  use  of  the  ruling  pen 
and  the  pen  point  of  the  compass. 

Proceed  with  the  tracing  the  same  as  for  finishing  a  pencil  drawing, 
drawing  lines  in  the  same  order.  Remember  to  draw  all  circles  and 
other  curves  before  drawing  straight  lines.  This  is  especially  important 
in  inking  if  good  connections  between  curves  and  tangents  are  to  be 
obtained. 

Keep  pen  points  in  good  condition.  Always  keep  them  clean.  Have  cloth 
pen- wiper  always  at  hand,  and  wipe  the  pen  each  time  just  before  filling 
and  when  it  is  put  away  in  the  case.  Keep  pen  points  reasonably  sharp. 

Always  have,  tacked  to  the  board  at  the  right-hand  side  of  the  paper, 
a  piece  of  paper  of  the  same  kind  as  that  upon  which  the  drawing  is  being 
made  and  test  the  pen  upon  this  before  drawing  lines  upon  the  drawing 
or  tracing.  Never  attempt  to  draw  a  line  in  ink  until  you  are  sure  the 
pen  is  properly  adjusted  and  that  it  will  make  just  the  kind  of  line  you 
desire.  Carelessness  as  to  this  may  be  very  costly. 

Be  careful  about  blotting.  In  order  to  avoid  blots,  observe  the  fol¬ 
lowing  cautions: 

Always  work  away  from  the  wet  lines. 

Do  not  try  to  draw  a  line  too  close  to  the  ruling  edge. 

Do  not  try  to  pick  up  a  triangle  while  it  is  close  to  a  wet  line,  or  do  not 
leave  it  in  proximity  to  such  a  line.  Slide  it  away  from  the  wet  lines  as 
soon  as  they  are  drawn,  or  it  may  be  accidentally  pushed  against  them 
and  cause  a  blot. 

Have  the  outside  of  the  pen  perfectly  dry  and  free  from  ink. 


70 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Be  careful  not  to  place  the  instruments  or  the  hands  upon  the  lines 
before  they  are  perfectly  dry. 

Do  not  try  to  erase  an  ink  line  until  it  is  thoroly  dry. 

See  Fig.  20  for  types  of  lines  to  be  used  in  ink  drawings. 

Ink  numerals,  arrow-heads,  letters,  etc.,  with  a  common  writing  pen. 
Use  a  pen  with  medium  fine  point  and  one  that  is  not  too  flexible.  Place 
a  very  little  ink  on  the  inside,  or  concave  side,  of  the  pen,  using  the  quill 
in  the  cork  of  the  bottle.  Do  not  dip  the  pen  into  the  ink  or  have  any 
ink  on  the  back,  or  convex  side.  Wipe  the  pen  point  often  to  keep  the 
ink  fresh  and  clean. 

Never  use  blotter  on  inked  lines;  they  must  remain  full  strength  on 
the  finished  drawing.  Use  blotter  only  to  remove  surplus  ink  in  case  of  blots. 

Blueprinting.  Blueprinting  is  a  method  of  duplication,  using  a 
specially-prepared,  sensitized  paper  somewhat  as  in  photography. 
The  result  is  a  copy  of  the  drawing,  having  white  lines  upon  a  blue 
background.  A  frame  with  glass  front  is  used  to  hold  the  tracing  and 
blue-print  paper  while  being  printed. 

Place  the  tracing  in  the  frame  with  the  inked,  or  face  side  next  to  the 
glass.  Put  the  blueprint  paper  over  the  tracing  with  the  sensitized  side 
next  to  it.  Close  the  frame  and  expose  to  the  light  for  the  proper 
amount  of  time.  Printing  is  done  in  direct  sunlight  or  strong  electric 
light.  Special  blueprinting  machines  are  used  for  electric  printing. 
The  length  of  time  the  print  is  exposed  to  the  light  depends  upon  the 
“speed”  of  the  paper,  the  intensity  of  the  light  and  the  transparency  of 
the  tracing.  Blueprint  paper  is  made  of  different  printing  speeds.  The 
speed  of  the  paper  must  be  known,  or  tests  must  be  made  with  small 
pieces  before  attempting  to  make  prints;  otherwise  much  paper  may  be 
wasted.  Bright  sunlight  is  best  for  making  prints.  Do  not  try  to 
print  unless  the  light  is  good.  The  paper  should  be  handled  only  in  a 
dark  room  or  in  subdued  light. 

After  exposing  prints  for  the  right  amount  of  time,  remove  from  the 
frame,  and  wash  in  clear,  running  water  for  a  short  time.  This  both 
develops  and  fixes  the  print.  A  print  that  has  been  over-exposed  may 
be  washed  a  longer  time,  and  the  lines  will  become  whiter.  One  that 
has  been  under-exposed  must  not  be  washed  too  long  or  it  will  wash  out 
light.  However,  all  surplus  of  the  sensitizing  solution  must  be  washed 
away. 

Remove  prints  from  the  water  and  hang  up  to  dry.  Press  with  a  hot 
flat-iron  after  drying  if  smooth  prints  are  desired.  Trim  to  the  de¬ 
sired  size. 


TRACING  AND  BLUEPRINTING 


71 


Problems.  Make  tracings  and  blueprints  of  such  drawings  as  the 
instructor  may  require.  It  is  expected  that  tracings  will  be  made  of 
some  of  the  drawings  made  earlier  in  the  course.  Trace  easiest  ones 
first,  and  proceed  to  more  difficult  as  facility  is  acquired.  Make  several 
tracings  before  going  on  to  the  next  section  of  the  course.  Other  trac¬ 
ings  may  be  made  later  as  may  seem  desirable.  Some  inking  directly 
upon  the  drawing  paper  may  also  be  done.  In  making  inked  drawings 
upon  the  paper,  do  not  line  them  in  with  heavy  lines  before  inking,  but 
let  the  inking  take  the  place  of  the  finishing  in  pencil. 

Work  slowly  and  very  carefully  at  first.  Be  sure  that  each  line  is 
correct  inpencil  before  inking  it  and  thus  avoid  costly  errors. 


SECTION  9. 


Working  Drawings  of  More  Complex  Objects  Having  Curved 
Outlines.  Projecting  Points  from  Top  View  to  End  View  or 
from  End  View  to  Top  View. 

The  new  principle  to  be  learned  at  this  time  is  the  method  of  project¬ 
ing  from  the  top  view  to  the  end  view  to  lay  off  the  horizontal  measure¬ 
ments  in  the  end  view,  or  of  projecting  from  the  end  view  to  the  top 
view  to  lay  off  vertical  measurements  on  the  top  view. 

When  approaching  this  problem,  bear  in  mind  that  measurements  on 
the  paper  in  a  vertical  direction  on  the  top  view  are  really  horizontal 


Fig.  43 


measurements  from  front  to  back  on  the  object  and  that  these  are  the 
same  as  measurements  in  a  horizontal  direction  on  the  end  view. 

The  student  has  already  learned  to  project  from  top  view  to  front 
view,  from  front  view  to  top  view  and  from  front  view  to  end  view. 
These  projections  are  made  directly  by  drawing  horizontal  and  vertical 
lines  between  the  views. 

Figs.  43  and  44  show  how  to  project  from  top  view  to  the  end  view  by 
using  the  compass  to  revolve  measurements  from  the  vertical  to  the 


PROJECTION 


73 


horizontal  direction.  The  drawing  shown  is  that  of  the  block  in  the 
sketch  in  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  Fig.  43. 

If  working  from  center  lines,  first  lay  out  center  lines  of  top  and  front 
views;  in  this  case  line  1  is  the  only  center  line  used. 

Next  lay  out  boundary  lines  of  front  and  top  views,  in  this  case  lines 
2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  and  7. 

Now  put  in  the  remainder  of  the  lines  for  these  two  views  so  as  to  com¬ 
plete  the  views.  Notice  that  the  horizontal  lines  extend  thru  the  end 
view. 


Next  draw  the  horizontal  line  No.  8  locating  it  between  the  front  and 
top  views  at  any  convenient  distance  below  line  3;  in  this  case,  call  it 
1-1/4". 

Locate  point  0  on  line  No.  8  so  that  OA  plus  OB  equals  the  desired  dis¬ 
tance  between  the  front  and  side  views.  In  the  example  given,  suppose 
the  distance  between  the  front  and  side  views  is  to  be  2".  As  stated 
above,  the  distance  OA  in  this  case  is  1-1/4";  therefore  OB  must  be  2" — 
1-1/4"  or  3/4". 

Thru  point  0  draw  the  vertical  line  9. 

Fig.  43  shows  the  drawing  carried  to  this  stage  ready  for  the  projec¬ 
tion  lines  to  the  end  view. 


74 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Fig.  44  shows  the  remainder  of  the  process.  From  all  points  in  the 
top  view  project  horizontal  lines  so  that  they  cut  line  9. 

With  point  0  as  a  center,  draw  arcs  from  the  points  just  located  on 
line  9  by  projection,  continuing  the  arcs  till  they  cut  line  8. 

From  points  thus  located  on  line  8  draw  vertical  lines  thru  the  end 
view.  These  lines  intersecting  the  projection  lines  from  the  front  view 
give  the  desired  points  on  the  end  view. 

In  the  figure,  the  lines  of  the  end  view  are  drawn  heavy  so  as  to  en¬ 
able  the  student  to  distinguish  them  more  easily.  This  need  not  be 
done,  however,  until  the  drawing  is  carried  to  the  finishing  stage. 

Now  dimension  and  finish  the  drawing  as  for  previous  problems. 

Notice  that  the  three  views  of  any  point,  as  point  A,  Fig.  44,  are  lo¬ 
cated  at  the  intersections  of  the  projection  lines  drawn  from  these 
points.  They  form,  as  it  were,  a  “closed  circuit.”  A  pencil  point 
started  from  point  A  in  the  top  view  following  along  the  projection  line 
to  point  A  in  the  end  view,  thence  to  point  A  in  the  front  view  will  re¬ 
turn  to  point  A  in  the  top  view  along  a  vertical  line.  This  fact  may  as¬ 
sist  in  checking  correctness  of  work.  Practice  tracing  points  from  view 
to  view  in  this  way. 

Remember  that,  in  making  drawings  of  objects  having  circular  forms, 
it  is  best  to  draw  the  circles  first  and  then  project  these  to  the  other  view 
or  views. 

Problems.  Make  such  drawings  as  may  be  assigned.  Apply  the 
principles  of  projection  explained  above.  Learn  to  trace  points  accu¬ 
rately  and  quickly  from  one  view  to  another.  Facility  in  projection  is 
very  essential  for  efficiency  in  making  drawings  of  this  kind. 


PROBLEMS— SECTION  9 


75 


ADJUSTABLE  BEARING 


Problem  30.  Make  a  three-view  working  drawing 


Problem  31.  Make  a  three-view  working  drawing 


76 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


DRAW  TOP  VIEW  BY 
PROJECTING  FROM  FRONT 

AND  END  VIEWS. 


COPY  HOLDER 
FOR  STENOGRAPHERS 


Problem  33 


SECTION  10. 


Working  Drawings  of  One-piece  Objects  Showing  Full-section 
or  Half-section  Views. 

Preliminary  explanations .  Fig.  45  illustrates  the  method  of  repre¬ 
senting  sectional  views  when  a  full  section  is  shown.  The  illustration 
given  is  the  top  and  sectional  views  of  the  clearance  block  for  circular 
saw  as  shown  in  the  sketch. 

When  drawing  sectional  views,  the  object  is  represented  as  if  it  were 
cut  thru  on  some  given  plane,  the  part  of  the  object  between  the  ob¬ 


server  and  the  cutting  plane  removed,  and  the  view  of  the  object  drawn 
as  if  looking  perpendicular  to  this  cut  surface. 

The  purpose  of  sectional  views  is  to  show  the  interior  parts  of  the  ob¬ 
ject  more  clearly  than  can  be  done  by  outside  views  only,  in  which 
dotted  lines  are  depended  upon  to  show  the  interior  parts.  Sectional 
views  are  resorted  to  only  when  this  greater  clearness  will  result. 

In  drawing  sectional  views,  all  visible  lines  of  the  object  back  of  the 
cutting  plane  should  be  drawn,  but  the  invisible  lines  need  not  be  shown 
unless  necessary  to  make  the  form  of  the  object  clear. 

In  sectional  views,  the  parts  of  the  drawing  representing  the  cut  sur¬ 
face,  or  the  parts  of  the  object  actually  cut  thru  in  the  section,  are  cross - 


78 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


hatched ,  that  is,  fine,  closely-spaced,  parallel  lines  are  drawn  across  these 
cut  surfaces  in  order  to  distinguish  them  from  parts  of  the  object  back 
of  the  cutting  plane.  These  lines  are  usually  drawn  with  the  45  degree 
triangle,  about  1/16"  apart,  spaced  entirely  by  eye,  and  drawn  after  all 
the  rest  of  the  drawing  has  been  completed.  The  spacing  of  the  cross- 
hatch  lines  may  vary  with  the  size  of  the  surface  to  be  cross-hatched. 

Fig.  46  shows  the  way  in  which  half-section  views  of  objects  are  drawn. 

In  a  case  of  this  kind,  one  quarter  of  the  object  is  supposed  to  be  cut 
away  as  shown  in  the  sketch  in  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  the  figure. 


The  sectional  view  is  drawn  as  if  looking  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to 
one-  of  these  cut  surfaces.  In  the  illustration  given  here,  the  part  of  the 
drawing  to  the  left  of  the  center  line  in  the  view  which  contains  the  sec¬ 
tion  is  half  of  a  front  view,  and  the  part  to  the  right  of  the  center  line  is 
a  half-sectional  view  of  the  object.  Thus  we  really  have  two  views  in 
one.  This  is  a  common  method  of  representing  symmetrical  objects 
when  a  sectional  view  is  desired.  The  sectional  view  may  be  to  the 
right  and  the  outside  view  to  the  left  of  the  center  line  if  desired. 

In  drawing  the  cross-hatching  lines,  it  is  well  to  keep  in  mind  the 
following  facts:  A  cross-hatching  line  must  always  stop  at  a  full 
line,  while  it  can  never  stop  at,  but  must  cross  over,  a  dotted  line.  If 
this  is  remembered,  many  mistakes  in  cross-hatching  will  be  avoided. 

Problems.  Work  such  problems  as  may  be  assigned,  representing 
the  sectional  views  in  the  way  to  bring  out  the  form  of  the  object  most 
clearly. 


PROBLEMS— SECTION  10 


79 


LATHE  REST  CLAMP 


Problem  34.  Make  top  and  end  views  and  a  full-section  view 
in  place  of  front  view 


Problem  35.  Make  top  view  and  a  half-section  view  in  place  of  front  view. 
Place  paper  on  board  with  long  dimension  perpendicular  to  T-square  and 
title  space  at  the  lower,  short  margin 


80 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Problem  36.  Draw  top  view  and  a  half-section  view  in  place  of  front  view. 
Place  paper  on  board  with  long  dimension  perpendicular 


Problem  37 


SECTION  11. 


Working  Drawings  of  Objects  Consisting  of  More  Than  One 
Piece  Showing  Full-section  or  Half-section  Views. 

Preliminary  explanations.  Fig.  47  illustrates  the  way  in  which 
sectional  views  are  drawn  when  more  than  one  piece  of  material  is  cut 
thru  in  the  plane  of  the  section.  The  drawing  is  that  of  the  small  panel 
door  shown  in  the  sketch. 


The  new  thing  illustrated  here  is  the  method  of  cross-hatching  when 
more  than  one  piece  of  material  is  cut  thru  in  the  section.  The  different 
pieces  of  material  that  are  in  contact  with  each  other  in  the  section 
must  be  cross-hatched  in  different  directions  so  as  to  distinguish  clearly 
between  these  different  parts. 

To  determine  just  what  parts  of  any  sectional  view  to  cross-hatch,  it 
may  be  helpful  to  consider  the  cross-hatching  lines  as  saw  marks  left  on 
the  material  when  cutting  thru  to  form  the  section.  Place  the  cross- 
hatching  lines  only  where  such  saw  marks  would  appear. 

Problems.  Make  drawings  as  assigned  under  this  section.  Study 
cross-hatching  carefully. 


82 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Problem  38.  Make  top  and  end  views  and  in  place  of  front  view 
make  section  on  center  line  of  holes 


Problem  39.  Draw  top  view  and  make  half-section  views  in  place  of 
both  front  and  end  views 


PROBLEMS— SECTION  11 


83 


Problem  40 


X 

o 

c£) 

o 

Id 

z 

cc 

D 

h 


Problem  41 


SECTION  12. 


Working  Drawings  of  Miscellaneous  Objects  Representing 
Partial  Sections,  Revolved  Sections  and  Breaks. 

Preliminary  explanations.  Fig.  48  illustrates  what  is  called  a 
“partial  section.”  Here  the  drawing  is  that  of  the  panel  shown  in  the 
sketch  in  the  figure. 

A  part  of  the  material  is  shown  cut  away,  or  broken  away  at  one  cor¬ 
ner  of  the  object  so  as  to  show  the  arrangement  of  the  pieces  at  the 
joint  better  than  could  be  done  by  dotted  lines  only. 


A  line,  called  a  “section  line,"  marked  by  letters  at  its  extremities,  is 
often  placed  upon  the  drawing  to  indicate  the  plane  on  which  the  section 
is  taken  when  this  is  not  otherwise  evident.  A  note  is  added  to  call 
attention  to  this  line,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  48. 

Notice  how  the  cross-hatching  lines  cross  over  the  dotted  lines  but 
always  stop  at  the  full  lines. 

These  partial  sections  may  often  be  thrown  in  to  clear  up  the  form  of 
certain  parts  of  the  object  without  making  complete  sections. 

Fig.  49  illustrates  the  use  of  revolved  sections  and  conventional 
breaks. 


REVOLVED  SECTIONS  AND  BREAKS 


85 


The  revolved  section  is  placed  directly  upon  one  of  the  views  of  the 
drawing  and  shows  the  sectional  form  of  the  part  to  which  it  relates,  as  if 
the  object  had  been  cut  at  this  point  and  the  cut  surface  revolved  into 
the  plane  of  the  paper. 

When  any  object,  such  as  a  long  rod,  bar,  moulding,  etc.,  is  to  be 
drawn,  the  full  length  of  the  object  can  not  be  represented,  for  the  scale 
would  need  to  be  so  small  that  the  drawing  would  be  impracticable.  In 


Fig.  49 


such  a  case  it  is  common  to  represent  the  object  as  if  part  of  it  had  been 
broken  out  near  the  center  and  the  two  ends  moved  together.  This 
shortens  the  view  on  the  drawing  and  enables  a  larger  scale  to  be  used. 
The  dimension  must  give  the  full  length  of  the  object. 

No.  1  in  the  drawing,  Fig.  49,  is  commonly  used  with  any  shaped 
piece  simply  to  indicate  that  a  part  has  been  cut  away. 

No.  2  is  used  for  rectangular  rods  or  bars,  and  serves  to  indicate  the 
form  of  the  section  as  well  as  the  fact  of  the  break. 

No.  3  is  used  for  breaks  in  round  rods. 

No.  4  represents  a  pipe,  tube  or  hollow  shaft. 

Problems.  Make  such  drawings  as  may  be  assigned  using  careful 
judgment  as  to  the  use  of  sections  in  various  ways  to  make  clear  the 
form  of  all  parts  of  the  object. 


86 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Problem  42.  Make  top  view,  make  full  section  in  place  of  front  view, 
and  show  partial  section  on  end  view  as  suggested  on  the  plate 
by  the  broken  part  in  the  sketch 


Problem  43.  Make  three  views  and  show  partial  section  in  front  view 


PROBLEMS— SECTION  12 


87 


Problem  44 


r 

>  tu: 

}  mlSS 

1 

V/f. 

i 

A 

Ti 

i 

L|<\l 

(M 

i  f 

dr 

Using  one  of  the  designs  for  pic  tore 
frame  moulding  shown  be/on/,  or  an 
original  design  made  by  the  student, 
make  a  -front  view  of  a  picture  frame 
to  take  a  g/ass  18"  x  24'. 

Make  the  drawing  full  scafe  but  use 
*  breaks'  in  sides  and  ends  as  suggested 
here. 

Show  shape  of  moulding  by  revolved 
section  and  qive  all  dimensions . 

Ma 


I  o  i"  _ _ 

y  l. 

“2  i _ _ 

wise 

_ . _ 

.[ 

.t^i 

frf 

-Z 

N<0 

1 

■•-I 

IiV 

_J3" 

n  i6 

P1CTURE  FRAME 


Problem  45 


SECTION  13. 


Preliminary  explanations .  The  problems  contained  in  this  section 
are  partly  design  problems  and  relate  to  courses  in  woodworking.  Stu¬ 
dents  who  have  not  had  instruction  in  woodwork  could  not  be  expected 
to  solve  these  problems  well  without  considerable  help  from  the  instruc¬ 
tor  as  to  joints,  fastenings,  dimensions  of  parts,  etc.  Those  who  have 
had  woodwork  or  who  are  taking  such  courses  should  be  able  to  deal 
with  these  problems  with  only  reasonable  consultation  with  the  instruc¬ 
tor. 

It  will  be  found  best  to  sketch  these  drawings  on  squared  paper  and 
decide  all  details  before  attempting  to  draw  them  on  the  regular  draw¬ 
ing  paper.  Several  sketches  may  need  to  be  made  before  the  best  solu¬ 
tion  is  determined  upon.  Plain  paper  may  be  used  for  sketching  but 
squared  paper  is  better. 

Problems.  Solve  problems  as  assigned  by  the  instructor.  Study 
the  design  carefully  so  as  to  secure  good  results  as  to  proportion,  form, 
strength,  and  other  requirements  of  the  structure. 


Problem  46.  Draw  such  views  as  may  be  required  to  make 
complete  working  drawings 


PROBLEMS— SECTION  13 


89 


Assume  c/zmen'Sions  one 1 

ma/re  o  three-y/ew  working  e/raw/nq. 


Problem  47.  Draw  such  views  as  may  be  required  to  make 
complete  working  drawings 


Problem  48.  Draw  such  views  as  may  be  required  to  make 
complete  working  drawings 


90 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Problem  49.  Draw  such  views  as  may  be  required  to  make 
complete  working  drawings 


Problem  50.  Draw  such  views  as  may  be  reauired  to  make 
complete  working  drawings 


INDEX 


A 

Angles: 

How  to  Dimension . 

How  to  Draw  with  Triangles 

Arrangement  of  Views . 

Arrowheads: 

Size  and  Form  of . 

In  Dimensioning  Stage . 

In  Finishing  Stage . 

In  Inked  Drawings . 

B 

Blueprinting . 

Blueprint  Paper . 

Border  Lines: 

Location  of . 

How  to  Lay  Out . 

Kind  of  Line . 

Order  in  Finishing  Stage 
Breaks,  Conventional . 


Page 


48 

50 

22 

26 

30 

31 
70 


.  .70 
9,  70 

.  .18 
.  .19 
.  .32 
.  .31 
.  .85 


C 

Center  Lines: 

Laying  Out  Drawing  by . 56 

Character  of . .  32,  59 

Dimensioning  When  Used . 57 

Circles: 

Representation  of . 62 

Drawing . 62 

Dimensioning . 63 

Tangent  to  a  Line . 63 

Order  of  Drawing . 62,  64,  69 

Compasses,  Use  of . 62 

Constructive  Stage,  Explanation 

of . 23 

Conventional  Breaks . 85 


Co-ordinates,  Use  of  in  Dimension¬ 
ing . 48 


Crosshatching: 

Explanation  of . 77 

Lines . 32,  77 

Single-Piece  Objects . 77 

Objects  of  More  Than  One  Piece ...  81 
Crosshatch  Line,  Character  of  .  32,  77 
Curved  Surfaces,  Representation 
of . 62 


D 


Dash  Lines: 

Character  of . 32,  37 

Use  of . 37 


How  to  Connect  with  Other  Lines .  .  38 


Page 

Design  Problems . 88 

Diameters,  Dimensioning  by  Means 

of . 63 

Dimension  Lines: 

Explanation  of . 26 

Arrangement  of . 26,27,  28,  29 

Character  of . 32 

In  Finishing  Stage . . 31 

Dimensioning: 

Conventions  for . 26 

Rules  for . 25,  28,  30 

Angles . 48 

Circular  Forms . 63 

Inclined  Surfaces . 48 

From  Center  Lines . 57 


Dimensioning  Stage,  Explanation 
of . 25 


Dimensions: 

Size  of . 27 

Arrangement  of . 27 

Grouping . 28 


Dividers,  Use  of  in  Measuring  ....  57 
Dotted  Lines  (see  “Dash  Lines”) 
Drawing  Pencils  (see  “Pencils”) 


Drawings: 

Working . 21 

Perspective . 21 

Stages  in  Making . 23 


E 


End  View  (see  “Side  View”) 

Erasing . 30,  31 

Extension  Lines,  Explanation  of.  .26 


F 

Figures: 

Composition  of . 17 

How  to  Practice . 17 

Size  of  in  Dimensions . 27 

Position  of  in  Dimensions . 27 

In  Finishing  Stage . 31 

In  Inked  Drawings . 70 

Filling  Pens . 70 

Finishing  Stage: 

Explanation  of . 31 

Steps  in . 31 

ForeshortenedLinesandSurfaces  .  48 

Form  Description . 22 

Fractions,  Size  and  Form  of.  ...  17, 27 
Freehand  Sketching . 8, 88 


92 


INDEX 


Page 


Front  View: 

Explanation  of . 22 

Location  of . 22 

Full  Sections . 77 


H 


Half  Sections 


78 


I 


Inclined  Surfaces: 

Representation  of . 47 

Dimensioning . 48 

Inclosing  Rectangles,  Laying  Out 

by  Means  of . 23 

Inking . 67 

Instruments,  List  of .  9 

Invisible  Outlines,  How  to  Repre¬ 
sent . 36 


L 

Laying  Out  Drawing  by  Inclosing 


Rectangles . 23 

Laying  Out  Drawing  by  Center 

Lines . 56 

Laying  Out  Sheet: 

For  Practice  Lettering . 16 

For  Regular  Drawing . 18 

Letters: 

Composition  of . 36 

Spacing  of . 47 

Lettering  : 

Laying  Out  Sheet  for . 16 

How  to  Practice . 36,  47 

Titles . 68 

Lines 

Schedule  of . 32 

Dash  Lines . 32,  37 

Dotted  Lines . 32,  37 

Center  Lines . 32,  56 

Dimension . 26,  31,  32 

Border . 18,  31,  32 

Trim . 18, 19 

Crosshatching . 32,  77 

Foreshortened . 48 


M 


Materials,  List  of .  9 

Measuring: 

Use  of  Pencil  in . 13 

Use  of  Scale  in . 12 


N 

Numerals  (see  “Figures’*) 


O 

Object  Lines: 

Full . 

Dash . . . 

Orthographic  Projection 


Page 


.  .  .31,32 
31,32,  37 
. 21 


P 

Paper: 

Fastening  to  Board . 11 

Kind  to  Use . 9, 18 

Size  of .  9 

Blueprint . 9,  70 

Tracing . 9,  68 

Parallel  Lines,  How  to  Draw  ....  49 

Partial  Sections . 84 

Pencils: 

How  to  Sharpen . 12 

Kind  to  Use . 9, 12 


How  to  Use  in  Drawing  Lines..  13, 15 
Pens: 

Use  of  Ruling . 69 

Common  Steel . 70 

PerpendicularLines,  Howto  Draw  .  49 
Plan  View: 

Explanation  of . 22 

Location  of . 22 

Projection: 

Finding  Points  by . 72 

Orthographic . 21 


R 

Radii,  Dimensioning  by  Means  of.  .  63 


Revolved  Sections . 85 

Ruling  Pens,  Use  of . 69 


S 

Scale : 

Use  of  in  Measuring . 12 

Use  of  in  Reducing . 42,43 

Sectional  Views: 

Explanation  of . 77,  81,  84 

Drawing . 77,  81,  84 

Sections: 

Half . 78 

Full . 77 

Partial . 84 

Revolved . 85 

Sharpening  Pencils . 12 

Side  View: 

Explanation  of . 22 

Location  of . 22 

Size  Description . 22 

Spacing  of  Letters . 47 

Spacing  of  Views . 24 


INDEX 


93 


Page 

Stage: 

Constructive . 23 

Dimensioning . 23,  25 

Finishing . 23,  30 

Stages  in  Making  Drawing . 23 

Constructive  Stage . 23 

Dimensioning  Stage . 25 

Finishing  Stage . 30 

Surfaces: 

Inclined . 47 

Curved . 62 

T 

Tacks: 

Thumb .  9 

Order  of  Inserting . 11 

Thumb  Tacks . 9, 11 

Titles,  Lettering  of . 68 

Tracings: 

Purpose  of . 68 

How  to  Make . 69 

Tracing  Paper . 9,68 


Page 


Triangles: 

Use  of  in  Drawing  Vertical  Lines ...  5 
Use  of  in  Drawing  Parallel  and  Per¬ 
pendicular  Lines . 49 

Use  of  in  Drawing  Lines  at  45,  30 

and  60  Degrees . 50 

Trim  Lines: 

Location  of . 18 

How  to  Lay  Out . 19 

T-Square: 

Use  of  in  Locating  Paper . 11 

Use  of  in  Drawing  Horizontal  Lines. 13 

V 

Views: 

Arrangement  of . 22 

Sectional . 77 

Half-Section . 78 

Full-Section . 77 

Partial-Section . 84 

Spacing  of . 24 

W 

Working  Drawings: 

Explanation  of . 21 

Position  of  Views  in . 22 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  TEXTBOOKS 


Grammar  Grade  Problems  in  Mechanical  Drawing — Bennett. 

A  remarkably  simple  and  carefully  graded  treatment  of  the  fundamentals  of  mechanical 
drawing  for  the  use  of  students  in  the  7th  and  8th  'grades.  It  combines  an  abundance 
of  text  and  simple  problems,  accompanied  by  notes  and  directions. 

Problems  in  Mechanical  Drawing — Bennett. 

A  students’  textbook  consisting  of  80  plates,  of  problems  classified  into  groups  ac¬ 
cording  to  principle  and  arranged  according  to  difficulty  of  solution.  For  eighth  and 
ninth  grade  classes. 

Mechanical  Drawing  Problems — Berg  and  Kronquist. 

A  direct  and  concise  text  adapted  for  high  school  students  beginning  mechanical 
drawing.  It  covers  two  years  work  and  contains  128  full-page  plates — excellent  examples 
of  draftsmanship.  Text  accompanies  each  plate,  giving  necessary  facts  and  helpful  hints 
wherever  needed.  The  underlying  principles  of  drafting  are  thoroly  covered  and  prac¬ 
tical  applications  are  abundant.  The  plates  tell  what  to  do,  almost  at  a  glance,  yet 
prevent  mere  copy  work. 

Mechanical  Drafting — Miller. 

A  textbook  for  advanced  high  school  students  which  presents  drafting  room  prac¬ 
tice  in  practical  textbook  form.  It  is  so  written  that  it  may  be  used  with  any  course 
of  problems  and  supplements  the  instruction  of  the  teacher  in  such  a  way  as  to  reduce 
lecture  work  to  a  minimum.  It  is  a  direct  and  simple  treatment  of  mechanical  drafting, 
giving  due  consideration  to  the  needs  of  the  student,  the  beginning  draftsman  and  the 
requirements  of  the  best  teaching  methods.  Well  illustrated  and  bound  in  flexible  bind¬ 
ing,  pocket  size.  A  thoroly  practical,  modern  textbook. 

Architectural  Drawing  Plates — Elwood. 

A  collection  of  15  plates  showing  the  various  details  included  in  the  plans  for  frame 
houses.  Names  and  typical  sizes  are  given  and  much  information  helpful  to  the  student 
or  draftsman.  One  plate  shows  eleven  “Plan  Studies,’’  another  “How  Elevations  are 
Worked  Up  from  Plans  and  Sections.’’  A  wonderfully  convenient  help  in  architectural 
drawing  classes. 

Progressive  Steps  in  Architectural  Drawing — Seaman. 

A  textbook  describing  and  illustrating  every  successive  step  in  drawing  of  floor 
plans,  elevations  and  various  details  for  successful  dwellings.  Numerous  plates  illustrate 
details  of  doors,  windows,  mouldings,  cornices,  porches,  etc.  Architectural  orders  shown 
in  practical  working  form.  “Single  line  sketches’’  illustrate  method  of  practical  de¬ 
signer  in  planning  a  house. 

Blue  Printing — Friese. 

Treats  of  the  planning  of  rooms  and  equipment  for  mechanical  drawing  and  blue¬ 
printing.  Presents  desirable  floor  plans  for  both  electric  and  sunlight  printing  and 
describes  apparatus.  Covers  the  various  papers,  including  process  of  sensitizing,  tells 
how  to  make  blue  prints  and  a  variety  of  special  prints,  including  Vandyke  negatives, 
black-line  and  blue-line  prints. 

Lettering  Card — Maclin. 

A  card  of  alphabets.  Shows  Gothic  capital  and  small  letters  both  vertical  and  inclined. 
A  helpful  guide  to  the  student  while  learning  to  letter.  Printed  on  bristol,  size  4"  x  8". 
In  packets  of  10. 

Blank  Lettering  Pads. 

Pads  of  ruled  paper  assist  wonderfully  in  the  teaching  of  lettering.  These  are 
printed  in  light  blue  lines  on  a  good  grade  of  paper.  They  are  convenient  and  prac¬ 
tical  helps,  making  possible  a  thoro  drill  in  the  fundamentals  of  lettering,  and  afford¬ 
ing  a  means  of  noting  accurately  by  student  and  teacher  the  development  of  the  ability 
to  letter.  Ruled  in  two  styles,  one  for  vertical  and  one  for  inclined  letters.  Size  5%"x7". 

Send  for  “Descriptive  Catalog ”  of  books  on 
Manual ,  V ocational  and  Industrial  Education. 

The  Manual  Arts  Press 

PEORIA,  -  ILLINOIS 


